privatehudson
The Ultimate Badass
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Merseyside is an area over 3000 miles from Washington and yet its impact on the American Civil War was quite considerable. This article will attempt to show why this was the case and what that impact was.
Introduction
Geographically the area lies alongside the Mersey estuary in North West England. Although it now covers a much wider area, the two main areas involved in this article are the Wirral Peninsula and the city of Liverpool. The region has a long and important history dating back at least as far as the Romans who used the Wirral as part of their route into Ireland. The oldest surviving building in the area, a monastery in Birkenhead dates back the 12th century and Liverpool was granted it’s charter by King John in 1207. Until the 18th century though the region was sparsely populated and in the main rural, but things were due to change forever.
Bricks cemented with blood? – Liverpool Trade
The cause of this rise was simple - trade. Liverpool had constructed her fist purpose built dock using floodgates – the first time such gates were used to enclose a dock. This innovation, which was soon followed the world over gave the city a chance to compete against other ports. The upstart newcomer challenged and eventually usurped the long standing dominance of London and Bristol on the slave trade. By the end of the century Liverpool was clearing more than twice as many slave ships for sail as the other two combined.
Although Liverpool had become central to the slave trade it would be a mistake to say the slave trade was central to Liverpool’s success. At the height of Liverpool’s influence it’s estimated that no more than 10% of all outbound shipping was slave related. It’s also said that contrary to popular belief those involved in the trade did not make massive fortunes since on average profits were just 8%. This was fortunate for the city as public and government opinion was turning against the trade. In 1772 any slave landing in the UK became free and in 1807 after considerable opposition the abolition of the slave trade bill was finally passed. As would be expected many people in the city protested but unusually a number were vehemently in support of the bill.
However although the city no longer had direct links to slavery it still retained indirect ones. Liverpool always has been a crucial link in the cotton industry and the enormous majority of this cotton came from trade with the USA and by extension slave plantations in the south. Cotton trading helped pay for improved docks and warehouses, not to mention the Liverpool to Manchester railway. In the first half of the 19th century this wealth and prosperity helped to turn Liverpool into the distribution port for Manchester, Yorkshire and the Midlands.
A drunken American actor at the Theatre Royal in Liverpool once responded to heckling from the audience with ”I have not come here to be insulted by a set of wretches, every brick in whose infernal town is cemented with an African’s blood!”. He may have been exaggerating, but not by much.
Military matters on the Mersey
The rise of the port of Liverpool in importance by extension saw interest in the Peninsula just over the Estuary also increase. By the early 19th century the area that would become Birkenhead was recognised as an excellent location for businesses as land was cheap and yet the area was less than a mile from the port of Liverpool The 1820s saw the arrival of a Scottish businessman, William Laird.. Originally a boiler manufacturer he and his son John turned their hand in 1828 to ship building. Laird and sons became famous in both America and Britain for their excellent designs winning many contracts.
The Laird family would have a massive impact on the peninsula prior to the 1860s funding many public buildings and the public park (the design of the park was later all but copied for Central Park in New York). Laird’s shipyards, combined with the construction of docks and railways into the area saw people flock to the Wirral with Birkenhead’s population rising from 110 at the start of the century to nearly 40,000 by the 1860s. By this time John Laird was mostly in control of the business with support from his younger brother Henry.
John Laird
Meanwhile Liverpool was not to be outdone in all this respect. In the city centre there stood the works of Fawcett Preston. Originally manufacturing kitchen utensils the works switched at the turn of the 19th century to producing guns for Wellington’s army. By the 1860s they had diversified into engine production and would soon play their part in the coming war. Also in Liverpool were Jones Quiggin, WC Miller & Sons and WH Potter, all ship building companies of prominence.
These therefore were the central reasons why the region became so involved in the American Civil War. Her position dominating world cotton trade and as a major British port ensured she would feel the effects of any slackening in US trade. Her ties to slavery and Cotton gave the impression that she would be pro-south. Finally the prominence and fame of the shipbuilding and arms industries in the region would ensure they would stand an excellent chance of receiving contracts from either side. One way or another Liverpool could not escape her role in the coming conflict, so what was it?
Cannons and Spies – Early Merseyside involvement
The earliest example of involvement goes right back to the very start of the conflict between the states. Amongst the many cannon used by the Beauregard’s forces surrounding Fort Sumter was the first example of a rifled cannon to arrive in the US. Built in Liverpool at Fawcett Preston’s and designed by Captain T A Blakely, the rifled 12pndr had been a gift from Charles Prioleau to the state of South Carolina. Prioleau was an American born businessman who became a British subject as part of operating the Liverpool office of Fraser-Trenholm. This company later dedicated itself to running the blockade that would soon be enforced on the South. Whether or not Prioleau intended his donation to ever be used in such a manner it was certainly an indication of things to come. Many of the cannons that would be used in the war would be British made but few have the same such an interesting role..
Almost immediately after events at Fort Sumter Lincoln announced a blockade of Southern ports seeking to strangle the south’s economy and prevent military aid from reaching her. Realising that this would have potentially devastating results on the course of the war the Confederate government knew swift action was needed. The Confederacy itself had little expertise or ability to produce large numbers of either blockade runners or commerce raiders and therefore had to turn to outside support.. Although many agents were eventually dispatched to Europe one man was particularly prominent in this role, James Dunwoody Bulloch.
James Bulloch
Bulloch had served in the US navy but as a native of Georgia resigned to serve the Confederacy on the outbreak of war. He was sent by the government as their agent to Britain and arrived in Liverpool in June 1861. Although he was technically a secret agent of a unrecognised government he was certainly not one for hiding his identity like a modern spy. Upon arrival he immediately began to liaise with Prioleau and others towards his principal goal. Bulloch was in Liverpool to purchase and/or build ships for the Confederate navy. Merseyside’s involvement in the conflict was about to go from interested observer to active supplier of arms.
Hear no laws, see no laws, enforce no laws – The legal issues
Before I continue with the story it is worth investigating at this point the various legal aspects of what Bulloch was attempting. The Confederacy was not a recognised government and Britain was neutral in the conflict. The Foreign Enlistment Act imposed penalties on companies building or equipping a ship destined to be used in acts of war with a country Britain was at peace with but did not make it illegal. The act concluded that there was no offence in doing so as the offence lay at the feet of those responsible for the acts, not those building the instrument used in them. The act was however very clear on the issue of British subjects serving foreign powers. A fine of £50 per person would be imposed on those who enlisted as a sailor, soldier or Marine contrary to the act’s provisions. The power was given to customs officials to detain any ship they suspected of this until the fine was paid.
Although the provisions of the act were not entirely clear on the subject it was clear that the British government could have either imposed the act strictly or altered it in order to prevent what the Confederates were certain to attempt. The fact that they failed to do so says volumes on their position during the war. The conservatives running Britain at the time were concerned at the rumblings of democracy in the country and knew the likely effect the blockade would have on trade. They were not likely therefore to be overly concerned if the Union government failed in its attempt to preserve the Union.
It was in this atmosphere that Bulloch conducted much of his early work in Britain. The government were content if he avoided breaking the enlistment act and with Bulloch denying all connections with the Confederacy the businessmen could pretend they knew nothing of the eventual destination of their sales. Bulloch would commission a ship, have it built essentially as a merchant ship and then commission another to carry potential crew and cannon. He would then arrange for both ships to sail for a predetermined meeting point where the first ship would be fitted out with the cannon and the crew would be signed on.
Ships for Dixie – Building the Confederate Navy
CSS Florida
Bulloch had no sooner arrived than begun his work. He first visited Miller’s shipyards were he purchased the Alexandra and had Miller begin work on the “Oreto” which would eventually find fame as the CSS Florida. Once again the name Fawcett – Preston was involved, on this occasion providing the Florida’s engines along with later many of its guns. The Alexandra was detained by customs authorities before she was finished but Oreto would escape such a fate.
By early 1862 things really began to heat up over the Oreto. The US consulate in Liverpoool, H Dudley was reporting every detail of the ship’s preparation to the American minister in London who complained bitterly to the government. Bulloch had concocted a story that the ship was destined for the Italian navy (something the Italian consulate swore they knew nothing about) and had the ship registered in Liverpool as being owned by a Liverpool merchant. The reaction of the British government was deafening in its silence and by March 1862 the ship had finished her trials.
On the 22nd March 1862 she sailed with a local crew destined for Nassau where she met the Bahama. There she took on board new crew and arms and ammunition. During this refit much of her crew deserted, unwilling to sign on now they truly appreciated the intention of the ship. Investigations by the admiralty also recognised her true nature and legal proceedings were begun in an attempt to detain her. This failed but did succeed in forcing her to commission outside of British waters. On the 10th August 1862 this was finished and the confederate flag was hoisted, the ship then adopting the name Florida.
Merseyside’s connection to this ship ends here. Florida would go on to a relatively successful career which ended in October 1864. Commander Collins in the USS Wachesett defied neutral waters to attack the ship whilst she was in harbour in Bahia, Brazil. With most of the crew ashore Collins was able to take the Florida in tow and return her to the US. The Brazilian government protested and Collins was court-martialled, however the decision was set aside by the Secretary of the Navy and Collins was lauded as a hero. The Florida’s career ended when she collided with a US troopship although some doubt exists as to how much of an accident this was, after all she would likely have been returned to Brazil (and thereafter to the Confederacy) under any court agreement.
CSS Alabama
Bulloch visited the Lairds shipyards in Birkenhead in July 1862 and was clearly impressed with what he saw. Even though they were more famous for iron ships Bulloch commissioned the company to produce a wooden one. Bulloch appreciated that an iron ship would be much harder to maintain and repair than a wooden one given the intended role of the ship. On the 1st April 1862 Bulloch and Lairds signed an agreement relating to the construction of yard number 290. This plain name betrays nothing of the ship’s true nature so perhaps you’ll know her better if I say she was to become the notorious raider CSS Alabama.
Dudley was once again not fooled by the deception Bulloch threw up about the vessel, even going so far as engaging the services of a private detective to follow Bulloch. Despite the loud and frequent complaints of Dudley and Adams work on 290 continued unchecked. By now virtually everyone on Merseyside had a very clear idea of her destination but in May 1862 the ship was launched, being christened Enrica. The efforts of Dudley could not be ignored though and within a month of the launch her first trials took place. Lairds and Bulloch were clearly concerned at the risk of the ship being detained if she remained in Merseyside any longer than was absolutely necessary.
This risk was not unfounded for Dudley had spent the time gathering statements from sources that included Confederate naval officers and a foreman at Lairds which confirmed the true nature of the vessel. Adams forwarded this information to Earl Russell who on June 25th obligingly set in motion the creaking machinery of the British government to investigate the matter. It seems likely though that someone forewarned Bulloch as almost immediately the Enrica was made ready to sail. Just 4 days later and 3 earlier than expected she left harbour with a British captain – Butcher, and a mostly British crew.
Some indication of the involvement of the Laird brothers in this can be gained by the fact that they were present on board to help give the impression of a trial but left in the afternoon. Bulloch had been able to recruit the crew by hiring Butcher and his men to only sail her to a foreign port – in this case the Azores. It seems likely though that had she remained a few more days the British government would have been unable to avoid detaining her or risk an serious incident with the Union government. The Union government had no confusion about Enrica and she instructed the Tuscarora to intercept and eliminate her the moment the departure was discovered.
Despite these efforts Enrica reached the Azores on the 10th August where she was joined by the Agrippina, the ship Bulloch had obtained to act as Alabama’s tender. In the Azores Enrica rapidly took on the armaments Agrippina had brought with her. Bulloch soon arrived in the area with Captain Raphael Semmes (Butcher’s replacement) and additional crew. Some of those who had sailed under Butcher also agreed to sign on for service in the Confederate navy. Quite probably many of these did so long before arriving in the Azores and even before leaving Merseyside, thus breaking the Foreign Enlistment act. Nevertheless on August 13th the English ensign was taken down, the confederate flag was hoisted and the Enrica became the CSS Alabama.
Alabama’s long and eventful career has been chronicled in depth elsewhere but before she ended her career Merseyside would once again be involved. After she was sunk by the Kearsage off the coast of France it was a Liverpool owned, Lairds built ship – Deerhound that rescued Semmes and his Executive officer along 11 other officers and 29 men. To the amazement of those on Kearsage the Deerhound then proceeded to leave the area and deliver the Confederates to Southampton. This intervention by a Merseyside ship to save Semmes from captivity seems almost predictable really.
Georgiana
The origins of this ship are somewhat vague with some sources saying it was built by Lairds and others saying it was built by Lawrie's (a shipyard in Glasgow) under contract from Lairds. Designed as a commerce raider that was even faster than Alabama she would have made a fine man of war. Unusually after leaving Liverpool in January 1863 it was decided that she would run the blockade into Charleston where she would be armed and fitted out. Unfortunately for her she never reached there as she was spotted by Federal cruisers and captain ran her aground near Long Island Beach. The Federal navy made several attempts to board her but were driven off. In the end she was destroyed by a stray shell from one of the confederate batteries brought up to drive off the Union forces. Unfortunately her early demise has meant that to my knowledge no photographs or drawings of her still exist.
The Laird Rams
Back in Birkenhead work had begun on two ironclad rams for the Confederacy, El Tousson and El Monassir (also known as Scorpion and Wyvern). Unlike the Alabama or Florida these were designed to break the blockade on southern ports by attacking the Union navy. By now though it was clear to all concerned that the British government could not ignore events any longer and another approach was needed. Bulloch promptly sold the ships to a firm of Paris merchants Bravary and Company, claiming to be acting on behalf of the Pasha of Egypt.
However as work neared completion Adams increased his pressure on the British government and on 11th July 1863 sent a letter that concluded with him regarding the work in progress on the rams to be tantamount to participation in the war itself which if not prevented could endanger peace. Following statements made by Clarence Yonge, Alabama’s former paymaster and checks made on the validity of the Egyptian connection the British Government were forced to take action. On 27th October 1863 both vessels were boarded and detained. Despite protests from Bravary the Admiralty purchased both vessels thus ending any chances of them ever being used for the Confederacy.
Along with these 5 warships nearly 30 blockade runners were built on Merseyside, many being operated by Fraser-Trenholm. At least two of these were owned by the Laird brothers themselves smaking it hard for them to claim ignorance of Bulloch’s intentions. Although many yards would be responsible for producing ships for the Confederate cause it can be clearly seen that Merseyside was at the heart of such efforts. There are still however events that provide us with other links.
Johnny Reb or Billy Yank – Just who did Merseyside support anyway?
Pro-Union feeling
Blockade running and shipbuilding made many fortunes on Merseyside but at the same time others close by were suffering greatly. The severe drop in Cotton imports into the port had left many porters in the city and mill workers in Lancashire without work and destitute. By March 1862 soup kitchens were being used in Liverpool to stave off the crisis and the number of destitute in Blackburn was over 6000 higher than the same period in 1861 with worse yet to come. As the war continued and the cotton crisis deepened this forced the British government to take action. Much of this support came too little and too late with many workers and their families starving.
You could forgive such people for wanting the Civil War or at least the blockade to end as soon as possible even if that meant British intervention or a Confederate victory. To their lasting credit though most steadfastly refused to support the Confederacy throughout the war. This staunch support did not go unnoticed in the North where Lincoln dispatched a number of relief ships laden with flour and corn for them. In an ironic twist one of these, the Brilliant was sunk by the Alabama before she could reach Liverpool.
Some aid did reach the port though and on 9th February 1863 the George Griswald arrived at the port laden with flour, rice, corn, pork and other supplies. Thousands lined the banks of the Mersey to cheer her arrival. In response on 19th February a mass meeting was held in St George’s Hall expressing support for Lincoln and the Union cause and distaste for the Southern cause. A central theme in this meeting and others was slavery with many likening the abolitionist cause to attempts to bring more democracy to Britain.
Pro Confederate Feeling
Never let it be said though that the general population on Merseyside were unequivocally pro-union. The city was involved in many different fund raising events for Southern prisoners of war. One of these, a bazaar was held in St George’s Hall, the same location as the pro-North meetings during the war. Men like James Spence were active in promoting the Southern cause in the city and country. Southern clubs were formed in many cities with the aim of changing the stance of the British government through agitation. Although they never really succeeded they did barrack various pro-North meetings during the war.
John Laird also enjoyed considerable support despite his involvement with the South. He stood for parliament in 1861 and received a little over 50% of the votes, some distance ahead of his closest rival. He also won elections in 1865, 1868 and 1874 despite his opponent’s attempts to use his involvement in the civil war against him. This support may be explained by the fact that although pro-Union sentiment was strong amongst the general population in Merseyside the enormous majority of them had no right to vote in these elections. Out of the 40,000 or so who lived in Birkenhead in the 1860s only 3,000 could exercise this right.
Lincoln’s Assassination
Rather surprisingly there is a connection between Liverpool and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. One of the most popular Shakespearean actors of the early 19th Century, Junius Brutus Booth appeared frequently at the Theatre Royal in the city centre. He later emigrated to the states and his son John was later to shoot Lincoln dead at Ford’s theatre. Interestingly enough Junius’ brother was the great great great grandfather of Cherie Booth who is of course the wife of Britain’s current Prime Minister.
Lincoln’s assassination brought much heartfelt grief from the population of Merseyside. More mass meetings were held with even pro-south men expressing indignation over the crime. Many Union supporters took this to be hypocrisy and criticised such men for attacking Lincoln as an “illiterate backwoodsman” when alive but then saying he was a fine man in death.
So really it’s not possible to say which side Merseyside supported. Certainly the merchants and shipbuilders backed the South but many amongst the general population were vehement supporters of the North. Perhaps men like Laird and Spence received more press but it is still good to know that
Post war connections
The end of the Civil War did not bring an end to Liverpool’s connections to it. Bulloch for example spent the remainder of his life in the city, unwilling to return to the States for fear of imprisonment. He died in 1901 and is buried in Toxteth Cemetery, not far from where many of the ships were built. His gravestone bears the inscription on one side “American by birth” and on the other “Englishman by choice”. To this day you can still see re-enactors commemorating his death every year. Also although Semmes returned to the Confederacy before the end of the war his sword remains in Birkenhead, currently as part of a Lairds exhibition in the Town Hall museum.
Liverpool also saw what could be argued to be the final surrender of the war. The Confederate raider Shenandoah had been in the Pacific in April 1865 and was unaware of events in North America until June when she captured newspapers that covered the surrender of Lee’s army and the capture of Richmond. On 2nd August she received confirmation from a British ship that the confederacy had collapsed. Captain Waddell then disarmed the ship and chose to sail 17,000 miles back to Liverpool. The Shenandoah finally sailed up the Mersey with the Confederate flag flying on 5th November 1865. The flag was lowered and Waddell surrendered the next day to the Mayor of Liverpool some 211 days after Appomattox.
One final connection remains to the war and that is the legal issues surrounding the Alabama and other raiders. Some 7 years after the war ended this was settled at the court of Arbitration in Geneva in favour of the United States which was awarded £3,299,166 in compensation. Interestingly Britain had since tightened up its laws and it was under these that the decision was made. Laird refused to admit he had done anything wrong legally, neatly avoiding the morality of the issue. He would remain unrepentant until his death on 29th October 1874.
Conclusion
So as can be seen Merseyside played a significant role in the American Civil War and had sympathies for both the North and South. I myself have always been interested in the conflict and found it very interesting to research its connections to the area where I have lived in my entire life. Researching the subject further has brought a new insight into John Laird, a man who is almost a hero to the people of the Wirral given how much he did for Birkenhead. Reading about his work in the 1860s though gives a more balanced view of the man as someone who either supported the southern cause or simply put business before morality.
Sources
Hollet, David, The Alabama Affair
Jones, Ron, The American Connection
Brocklebank, Ralph, Birkenhead an Illustrated History
Merseyside Tourism Board, Liverpool Heritage Walk
http://www.redstarline.org.uk/civil_war_in_liverpool.html
http://www.csa-dixie.com/liverpool_dixie/index.htm
Introduction
Geographically the area lies alongside the Mersey estuary in North West England. Although it now covers a much wider area, the two main areas involved in this article are the Wirral Peninsula and the city of Liverpool. The region has a long and important history dating back at least as far as the Romans who used the Wirral as part of their route into Ireland. The oldest surviving building in the area, a monastery in Birkenhead dates back the 12th century and Liverpool was granted it’s charter by King John in 1207. Until the 18th century though the region was sparsely populated and in the main rural, but things were due to change forever.
Bricks cemented with blood? – Liverpool Trade
The cause of this rise was simple - trade. Liverpool had constructed her fist purpose built dock using floodgates – the first time such gates were used to enclose a dock. This innovation, which was soon followed the world over gave the city a chance to compete against other ports. The upstart newcomer challenged and eventually usurped the long standing dominance of London and Bristol on the slave trade. By the end of the century Liverpool was clearing more than twice as many slave ships for sail as the other two combined.
Although Liverpool had become central to the slave trade it would be a mistake to say the slave trade was central to Liverpool’s success. At the height of Liverpool’s influence it’s estimated that no more than 10% of all outbound shipping was slave related. It’s also said that contrary to popular belief those involved in the trade did not make massive fortunes since on average profits were just 8%. This was fortunate for the city as public and government opinion was turning against the trade. In 1772 any slave landing in the UK became free and in 1807 after considerable opposition the abolition of the slave trade bill was finally passed. As would be expected many people in the city protested but unusually a number were vehemently in support of the bill.
However although the city no longer had direct links to slavery it still retained indirect ones. Liverpool always has been a crucial link in the cotton industry and the enormous majority of this cotton came from trade with the USA and by extension slave plantations in the south. Cotton trading helped pay for improved docks and warehouses, not to mention the Liverpool to Manchester railway. In the first half of the 19th century this wealth and prosperity helped to turn Liverpool into the distribution port for Manchester, Yorkshire and the Midlands.
A drunken American actor at the Theatre Royal in Liverpool once responded to heckling from the audience with ”I have not come here to be insulted by a set of wretches, every brick in whose infernal town is cemented with an African’s blood!”. He may have been exaggerating, but not by much.
Military matters on the Mersey
The rise of the port of Liverpool in importance by extension saw interest in the Peninsula just over the Estuary also increase. By the early 19th century the area that would become Birkenhead was recognised as an excellent location for businesses as land was cheap and yet the area was less than a mile from the port of Liverpool The 1820s saw the arrival of a Scottish businessman, William Laird.. Originally a boiler manufacturer he and his son John turned their hand in 1828 to ship building. Laird and sons became famous in both America and Britain for their excellent designs winning many contracts.
The Laird family would have a massive impact on the peninsula prior to the 1860s funding many public buildings and the public park (the design of the park was later all but copied for Central Park in New York). Laird’s shipyards, combined with the construction of docks and railways into the area saw people flock to the Wirral with Birkenhead’s population rising from 110 at the start of the century to nearly 40,000 by the 1860s. By this time John Laird was mostly in control of the business with support from his younger brother Henry.
John Laird
Meanwhile Liverpool was not to be outdone in all this respect. In the city centre there stood the works of Fawcett Preston. Originally manufacturing kitchen utensils the works switched at the turn of the 19th century to producing guns for Wellington’s army. By the 1860s they had diversified into engine production and would soon play their part in the coming war. Also in Liverpool were Jones Quiggin, WC Miller & Sons and WH Potter, all ship building companies of prominence.
These therefore were the central reasons why the region became so involved in the American Civil War. Her position dominating world cotton trade and as a major British port ensured she would feel the effects of any slackening in US trade. Her ties to slavery and Cotton gave the impression that she would be pro-south. Finally the prominence and fame of the shipbuilding and arms industries in the region would ensure they would stand an excellent chance of receiving contracts from either side. One way or another Liverpool could not escape her role in the coming conflict, so what was it?
Cannons and Spies – Early Merseyside involvement
The earliest example of involvement goes right back to the very start of the conflict between the states. Amongst the many cannon used by the Beauregard’s forces surrounding Fort Sumter was the first example of a rifled cannon to arrive in the US. Built in Liverpool at Fawcett Preston’s and designed by Captain T A Blakely, the rifled 12pndr had been a gift from Charles Prioleau to the state of South Carolina. Prioleau was an American born businessman who became a British subject as part of operating the Liverpool office of Fraser-Trenholm. This company later dedicated itself to running the blockade that would soon be enforced on the South. Whether or not Prioleau intended his donation to ever be used in such a manner it was certainly an indication of things to come. Many of the cannons that would be used in the war would be British made but few have the same such an interesting role..
Almost immediately after events at Fort Sumter Lincoln announced a blockade of Southern ports seeking to strangle the south’s economy and prevent military aid from reaching her. Realising that this would have potentially devastating results on the course of the war the Confederate government knew swift action was needed. The Confederacy itself had little expertise or ability to produce large numbers of either blockade runners or commerce raiders and therefore had to turn to outside support.. Although many agents were eventually dispatched to Europe one man was particularly prominent in this role, James Dunwoody Bulloch.
James Bulloch
Bulloch had served in the US navy but as a native of Georgia resigned to serve the Confederacy on the outbreak of war. He was sent by the government as their agent to Britain and arrived in Liverpool in June 1861. Although he was technically a secret agent of a unrecognised government he was certainly not one for hiding his identity like a modern spy. Upon arrival he immediately began to liaise with Prioleau and others towards his principal goal. Bulloch was in Liverpool to purchase and/or build ships for the Confederate navy. Merseyside’s involvement in the conflict was about to go from interested observer to active supplier of arms.
Hear no laws, see no laws, enforce no laws – The legal issues
Before I continue with the story it is worth investigating at this point the various legal aspects of what Bulloch was attempting. The Confederacy was not a recognised government and Britain was neutral in the conflict. The Foreign Enlistment Act imposed penalties on companies building or equipping a ship destined to be used in acts of war with a country Britain was at peace with but did not make it illegal. The act concluded that there was no offence in doing so as the offence lay at the feet of those responsible for the acts, not those building the instrument used in them. The act was however very clear on the issue of British subjects serving foreign powers. A fine of £50 per person would be imposed on those who enlisted as a sailor, soldier or Marine contrary to the act’s provisions. The power was given to customs officials to detain any ship they suspected of this until the fine was paid.
Although the provisions of the act were not entirely clear on the subject it was clear that the British government could have either imposed the act strictly or altered it in order to prevent what the Confederates were certain to attempt. The fact that they failed to do so says volumes on their position during the war. The conservatives running Britain at the time were concerned at the rumblings of democracy in the country and knew the likely effect the blockade would have on trade. They were not likely therefore to be overly concerned if the Union government failed in its attempt to preserve the Union.
It was in this atmosphere that Bulloch conducted much of his early work in Britain. The government were content if he avoided breaking the enlistment act and with Bulloch denying all connections with the Confederacy the businessmen could pretend they knew nothing of the eventual destination of their sales. Bulloch would commission a ship, have it built essentially as a merchant ship and then commission another to carry potential crew and cannon. He would then arrange for both ships to sail for a predetermined meeting point where the first ship would be fitted out with the cannon and the crew would be signed on.
Ships for Dixie – Building the Confederate Navy
CSS Florida
Bulloch had no sooner arrived than begun his work. He first visited Miller’s shipyards were he purchased the Alexandra and had Miller begin work on the “Oreto” which would eventually find fame as the CSS Florida. Once again the name Fawcett – Preston was involved, on this occasion providing the Florida’s engines along with later many of its guns. The Alexandra was detained by customs authorities before she was finished but Oreto would escape such a fate.
By early 1862 things really began to heat up over the Oreto. The US consulate in Liverpoool, H Dudley was reporting every detail of the ship’s preparation to the American minister in London who complained bitterly to the government. Bulloch had concocted a story that the ship was destined for the Italian navy (something the Italian consulate swore they knew nothing about) and had the ship registered in Liverpool as being owned by a Liverpool merchant. The reaction of the British government was deafening in its silence and by March 1862 the ship had finished her trials.
On the 22nd March 1862 she sailed with a local crew destined for Nassau where she met the Bahama. There she took on board new crew and arms and ammunition. During this refit much of her crew deserted, unwilling to sign on now they truly appreciated the intention of the ship. Investigations by the admiralty also recognised her true nature and legal proceedings were begun in an attempt to detain her. This failed but did succeed in forcing her to commission outside of British waters. On the 10th August 1862 this was finished and the confederate flag was hoisted, the ship then adopting the name Florida.
Merseyside’s connection to this ship ends here. Florida would go on to a relatively successful career which ended in October 1864. Commander Collins in the USS Wachesett defied neutral waters to attack the ship whilst she was in harbour in Bahia, Brazil. With most of the crew ashore Collins was able to take the Florida in tow and return her to the US. The Brazilian government protested and Collins was court-martialled, however the decision was set aside by the Secretary of the Navy and Collins was lauded as a hero. The Florida’s career ended when she collided with a US troopship although some doubt exists as to how much of an accident this was, after all she would likely have been returned to Brazil (and thereafter to the Confederacy) under any court agreement.
CSS Alabama
Bulloch visited the Lairds shipyards in Birkenhead in July 1862 and was clearly impressed with what he saw. Even though they were more famous for iron ships Bulloch commissioned the company to produce a wooden one. Bulloch appreciated that an iron ship would be much harder to maintain and repair than a wooden one given the intended role of the ship. On the 1st April 1862 Bulloch and Lairds signed an agreement relating to the construction of yard number 290. This plain name betrays nothing of the ship’s true nature so perhaps you’ll know her better if I say she was to become the notorious raider CSS Alabama.
Dudley was once again not fooled by the deception Bulloch threw up about the vessel, even going so far as engaging the services of a private detective to follow Bulloch. Despite the loud and frequent complaints of Dudley and Adams work on 290 continued unchecked. By now virtually everyone on Merseyside had a very clear idea of her destination but in May 1862 the ship was launched, being christened Enrica. The efforts of Dudley could not be ignored though and within a month of the launch her first trials took place. Lairds and Bulloch were clearly concerned at the risk of the ship being detained if she remained in Merseyside any longer than was absolutely necessary.
This risk was not unfounded for Dudley had spent the time gathering statements from sources that included Confederate naval officers and a foreman at Lairds which confirmed the true nature of the vessel. Adams forwarded this information to Earl Russell who on June 25th obligingly set in motion the creaking machinery of the British government to investigate the matter. It seems likely though that someone forewarned Bulloch as almost immediately the Enrica was made ready to sail. Just 4 days later and 3 earlier than expected she left harbour with a British captain – Butcher, and a mostly British crew.
Some indication of the involvement of the Laird brothers in this can be gained by the fact that they were present on board to help give the impression of a trial but left in the afternoon. Bulloch had been able to recruit the crew by hiring Butcher and his men to only sail her to a foreign port – in this case the Azores. It seems likely though that had she remained a few more days the British government would have been unable to avoid detaining her or risk an serious incident with the Union government. The Union government had no confusion about Enrica and she instructed the Tuscarora to intercept and eliminate her the moment the departure was discovered.
Despite these efforts Enrica reached the Azores on the 10th August where she was joined by the Agrippina, the ship Bulloch had obtained to act as Alabama’s tender. In the Azores Enrica rapidly took on the armaments Agrippina had brought with her. Bulloch soon arrived in the area with Captain Raphael Semmes (Butcher’s replacement) and additional crew. Some of those who had sailed under Butcher also agreed to sign on for service in the Confederate navy. Quite probably many of these did so long before arriving in the Azores and even before leaving Merseyside, thus breaking the Foreign Enlistment act. Nevertheless on August 13th the English ensign was taken down, the confederate flag was hoisted and the Enrica became the CSS Alabama.
Alabama’s long and eventful career has been chronicled in depth elsewhere but before she ended her career Merseyside would once again be involved. After she was sunk by the Kearsage off the coast of France it was a Liverpool owned, Lairds built ship – Deerhound that rescued Semmes and his Executive officer along 11 other officers and 29 men. To the amazement of those on Kearsage the Deerhound then proceeded to leave the area and deliver the Confederates to Southampton. This intervention by a Merseyside ship to save Semmes from captivity seems almost predictable really.
Georgiana
The origins of this ship are somewhat vague with some sources saying it was built by Lairds and others saying it was built by Lawrie's (a shipyard in Glasgow) under contract from Lairds. Designed as a commerce raider that was even faster than Alabama she would have made a fine man of war. Unusually after leaving Liverpool in January 1863 it was decided that she would run the blockade into Charleston where she would be armed and fitted out. Unfortunately for her she never reached there as she was spotted by Federal cruisers and captain ran her aground near Long Island Beach. The Federal navy made several attempts to board her but were driven off. In the end she was destroyed by a stray shell from one of the confederate batteries brought up to drive off the Union forces. Unfortunately her early demise has meant that to my knowledge no photographs or drawings of her still exist.
The Laird Rams
Back in Birkenhead work had begun on two ironclad rams for the Confederacy, El Tousson and El Monassir (also known as Scorpion and Wyvern). Unlike the Alabama or Florida these were designed to break the blockade on southern ports by attacking the Union navy. By now though it was clear to all concerned that the British government could not ignore events any longer and another approach was needed. Bulloch promptly sold the ships to a firm of Paris merchants Bravary and Company, claiming to be acting on behalf of the Pasha of Egypt.
However as work neared completion Adams increased his pressure on the British government and on 11th July 1863 sent a letter that concluded with him regarding the work in progress on the rams to be tantamount to participation in the war itself which if not prevented could endanger peace. Following statements made by Clarence Yonge, Alabama’s former paymaster and checks made on the validity of the Egyptian connection the British Government were forced to take action. On 27th October 1863 both vessels were boarded and detained. Despite protests from Bravary the Admiralty purchased both vessels thus ending any chances of them ever being used for the Confederacy.
Along with these 5 warships nearly 30 blockade runners were built on Merseyside, many being operated by Fraser-Trenholm. At least two of these were owned by the Laird brothers themselves smaking it hard for them to claim ignorance of Bulloch’s intentions. Although many yards would be responsible for producing ships for the Confederate cause it can be clearly seen that Merseyside was at the heart of such efforts. There are still however events that provide us with other links.
Johnny Reb or Billy Yank – Just who did Merseyside support anyway?
Pro-Union feeling
Blockade running and shipbuilding made many fortunes on Merseyside but at the same time others close by were suffering greatly. The severe drop in Cotton imports into the port had left many porters in the city and mill workers in Lancashire without work and destitute. By March 1862 soup kitchens were being used in Liverpool to stave off the crisis and the number of destitute in Blackburn was over 6000 higher than the same period in 1861 with worse yet to come. As the war continued and the cotton crisis deepened this forced the British government to take action. Much of this support came too little and too late with many workers and their families starving.
You could forgive such people for wanting the Civil War or at least the blockade to end as soon as possible even if that meant British intervention or a Confederate victory. To their lasting credit though most steadfastly refused to support the Confederacy throughout the war. This staunch support did not go unnoticed in the North where Lincoln dispatched a number of relief ships laden with flour and corn for them. In an ironic twist one of these, the Brilliant was sunk by the Alabama before she could reach Liverpool.
Some aid did reach the port though and on 9th February 1863 the George Griswald arrived at the port laden with flour, rice, corn, pork and other supplies. Thousands lined the banks of the Mersey to cheer her arrival. In response on 19th February a mass meeting was held in St George’s Hall expressing support for Lincoln and the Union cause and distaste for the Southern cause. A central theme in this meeting and others was slavery with many likening the abolitionist cause to attempts to bring more democracy to Britain.
Pro Confederate Feeling
Never let it be said though that the general population on Merseyside were unequivocally pro-union. The city was involved in many different fund raising events for Southern prisoners of war. One of these, a bazaar was held in St George’s Hall, the same location as the pro-North meetings during the war. Men like James Spence were active in promoting the Southern cause in the city and country. Southern clubs were formed in many cities with the aim of changing the stance of the British government through agitation. Although they never really succeeded they did barrack various pro-North meetings during the war.
John Laird also enjoyed considerable support despite his involvement with the South. He stood for parliament in 1861 and received a little over 50% of the votes, some distance ahead of his closest rival. He also won elections in 1865, 1868 and 1874 despite his opponent’s attempts to use his involvement in the civil war against him. This support may be explained by the fact that although pro-Union sentiment was strong amongst the general population in Merseyside the enormous majority of them had no right to vote in these elections. Out of the 40,000 or so who lived in Birkenhead in the 1860s only 3,000 could exercise this right.
Lincoln’s Assassination
Rather surprisingly there is a connection between Liverpool and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. One of the most popular Shakespearean actors of the early 19th Century, Junius Brutus Booth appeared frequently at the Theatre Royal in the city centre. He later emigrated to the states and his son John was later to shoot Lincoln dead at Ford’s theatre. Interestingly enough Junius’ brother was the great great great grandfather of Cherie Booth who is of course the wife of Britain’s current Prime Minister.
Lincoln’s assassination brought much heartfelt grief from the population of Merseyside. More mass meetings were held with even pro-south men expressing indignation over the crime. Many Union supporters took this to be hypocrisy and criticised such men for attacking Lincoln as an “illiterate backwoodsman” when alive but then saying he was a fine man in death.
So really it’s not possible to say which side Merseyside supported. Certainly the merchants and shipbuilders backed the South but many amongst the general population were vehement supporters of the North. Perhaps men like Laird and Spence received more press but it is still good to know that
Post war connections
The end of the Civil War did not bring an end to Liverpool’s connections to it. Bulloch for example spent the remainder of his life in the city, unwilling to return to the States for fear of imprisonment. He died in 1901 and is buried in Toxteth Cemetery, not far from where many of the ships were built. His gravestone bears the inscription on one side “American by birth” and on the other “Englishman by choice”. To this day you can still see re-enactors commemorating his death every year. Also although Semmes returned to the Confederacy before the end of the war his sword remains in Birkenhead, currently as part of a Lairds exhibition in the Town Hall museum.
Liverpool also saw what could be argued to be the final surrender of the war. The Confederate raider Shenandoah had been in the Pacific in April 1865 and was unaware of events in North America until June when she captured newspapers that covered the surrender of Lee’s army and the capture of Richmond. On 2nd August she received confirmation from a British ship that the confederacy had collapsed. Captain Waddell then disarmed the ship and chose to sail 17,000 miles back to Liverpool. The Shenandoah finally sailed up the Mersey with the Confederate flag flying on 5th November 1865. The flag was lowered and Waddell surrendered the next day to the Mayor of Liverpool some 211 days after Appomattox.
One final connection remains to the war and that is the legal issues surrounding the Alabama and other raiders. Some 7 years after the war ended this was settled at the court of Arbitration in Geneva in favour of the United States which was awarded £3,299,166 in compensation. Interestingly Britain had since tightened up its laws and it was under these that the decision was made. Laird refused to admit he had done anything wrong legally, neatly avoiding the morality of the issue. He would remain unrepentant until his death on 29th October 1874.
Conclusion
So as can be seen Merseyside played a significant role in the American Civil War and had sympathies for both the North and South. I myself have always been interested in the conflict and found it very interesting to research its connections to the area where I have lived in my entire life. Researching the subject further has brought a new insight into John Laird, a man who is almost a hero to the people of the Wirral given how much he did for Birkenhead. Reading about his work in the 1860s though gives a more balanced view of the man as someone who either supported the southern cause or simply put business before morality.
Sources
Hollet, David, The Alabama Affair
Jones, Ron, The American Connection
Brocklebank, Ralph, Birkenhead an Illustrated History
Merseyside Tourism Board, Liverpool Heritage Walk
http://www.redstarline.org.uk/civil_war_in_liverpool.html
http://www.csa-dixie.com/liverpool_dixie/index.htm
