The History of ancient Iran

[Stefan Haertel]

Here's a little something I wrote a long time ago. I have never cared to publish it (it was intended for a website, but I screwed it), but IMHO it's too good to remain on my HD.

The History of ancient Iran
By Stefan Härtel

Table Of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Pre-History
2.1 The Geographical Presuppositions
2.2 The Beginnings Of Civilization
2.3 Religion And Culture
3. Elam And The Mountain Tribes
3.1 Foreign Influence
3.2 Geographical Presuppositions
3.3 Elam
3.4 The Awakening Of The Tribes And The Rise Of The Kassites
4. The Coming Of The Iranian Tribes
4.1 Historical Presuppositions
4.2 The Bactrians
4.3 The Medians
4.4 The Persians
4.5 Cimmerians And Scythians
4.6 The Emergence Of Iranian Civilization
5. The Achaemenid Empire
5.1 The End Of The Median Empire
5.2 Cyrus The Great (559-530 BC)
5.3 Cambyses II (530-522 BC)
5.4 Culture, Art, Architecture And Administration Of The Early Empire Of The Achaemenids
5.5 Darius The Great (522-486 BC)
Early Years
Conquering An Empire
New Administration
Interventions In Europe
War With Greece
5.6 Persepolis
5.7 The Achaemenids From Xerxes I (486-465 BC) To Artaxerxes IV (338-336 BC)
5.8 Susa, Naqsh-e Rostam and Pasargadae
5.9 The Macedonian Conquest
6. The Parthians
6.1 The Parthian Expansion
6.2 Parthian Development In The Shadow Of Rome
6.3 The Parthian Civilization
7. The Sassanid Empire
7.1 The Situation Of The Persians After The Fall Of The Achaemenid Empire
7.2 The Early Sassanid Expansion
7.3 Inner Persian Troubles And The Hephtalites
7.4 Xusro II And The Fall Of The Empire
7.5 The Sassanid Civilization
8. Appendix
The Main Dynasties
Bibliography

1. Introduction

Iran is a country with a long history. Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi celebrated its 2500th birthday in 1971, but the country's history began a lot earlier. From the very first settlers who dwelled in the caves of the Zagros Mountains to the Mullahs who reign the country at the present day, the people of Iran have always been proud of their country, it's culture, it's civilization and it's history. Truly, Iran is one of the few throughout individual countries that survived history. Foreign influence had often changed and sometimes terminated a culture, had equaled it to others, had pulled them with the flow. But the Iranians had always been one of the few peoples who did not bend down and accept a foreign master. Whatever it was, the Iranians had always taken it and shaped it their way, and turned it into a part of their civilization. That makes the Iranian civilization truly unique, and it's history even more fascinating. Iran's reputation has suffered greatly in the past 20 years. Iran had become a synonym for aggression, fundamentalism and terrorism. Worldwide incidents have made Iran suffer, and embargoes have ruined its economy. But slowly, Iran is recovering and succeeding in reestablishing it's former importance.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

2. Pre-History

2.1. The Geographical presuppositions
The Iranian plateau is made up of mostly inhospitable mountains and deserts, but the fertile valleys and oases provide numerous natural resources for the peoples to live and flourish. In ancient Iran, the valleys of Khorassan functioned as the natural granary. Khorassan is the area where today the cities of Mashhad and Neyshabuhr are.
The Kopet Dadj Mountains are the natural border between Khorassan and the Turkmen Karakum desert. In ancient times, one must imagine this area as rich and fertile, with wine, rice, figs, walnuts and pistachios growing on the trees, and large cultivation of the land, with wheat, barley, opium, poppy, cotton and tobacco growing. In the lower valleys, goats, sheep and horses grazed.
The eastern border is a flowing change into Baluchistan with the Gedrosian desert, one of the most feared deserts of antiquity. According to legend neither Cyrus the Great, nor Semiramis made it to pass the desert, which was one of the two possible paths to India -the other being the Khyber Pass- and only Alexander the Great passed it, with great causalities.
Very strange landscapes and very weird creatures can be found along the shore of the Persian Gulf. The isle of Djazire-ye Qeshm in the Strait of Hormuz reminds one of a science-fiction movie. Both the countryside and the strange animals seem to have missed the evolution by a couple million years. The northern shoreline of the Persian Gulf is made up of lowlands, which are today known as Huzestan, in antiquity was called Elam. This area is actually just a geographical extension of Mesopotamia. Its northern borders and simultaneously the southern frontier of the plateau are the Zagros Mountains. Its highest peak, the Sardeh Kuh is 4547 meters high. Many tribes emerged here, for example the Lullubi, or the Kashshi.
Finally, the north is made up of the Elburz Mountains. Mt. Demavend marks its center, in antiquity known as Mt. Bikni. The old Iranians regarded this 5670 meters high peak as the center of the earth. It was thought to be the highest peak of the world, and that from this mountain all others emerged. Its peak was thought to be attached to the sky, its roots in the center of the earth. North of the Elburz at the shore of the Caspian Sea is a small area, probably the most fertile of all of Iran.

2.2 The beginnings of civilization
In the earliest times, while glaciers covered Europe, it is proved that even the high valleys of the Iranian plateau were under water. The progressive drying up of these which occurred during several millennia caused the people depending on these "lakes" to wander into the plains, where they established firm settlements. The oldest known one of these is Tepe Siyalk, near today's Kashan. This all occurred at about 5-4000 BC.
At first, the people just sheltered beneath trees, or temporary huts made from branches. But soon first huts made of pisé were built. Although still depending on the hunt, the settlers soon cultivated the land. Time periods can, as with most other cultures, be defined by the work of art produced in that time, especially through pottery. In the caves there have been found smoked black pieces of pottery, while in the settlements on the countryside was now added red ware with black patches caused by the primitive ovens. The painted pottery used simple geometrical structuring.
At the dawn of the fourth millennium, the people of Siyalk have learned to use mud brick and new ceramic design. This period is enlabeled Period II. The pottery now showed animal design, and animals have also been carved into bones. Pottery design advanced and became much more a form of art and expression. Animals were pictured, often in abstract forms, and humans were later also drawn. We also have seals of this time, which show geometrical and abstract designs.
The Third Millennium saw the evolvement of a form of script, nowadays known as the Proto-Elamite script, a pictographically one. The time in which this script was used is known as Period III. From these times, there are also some graves that were filled with rich pieces of pottery, ornaments and weapons. Cylinder seals and tablets, showing animals and ornaments have been found from this period too.

2.3 Religion and Culture
A certain death cult existed in the earliest times. During Period I, the dead were buried beneath the floors of the houses, perhaps in belief that the spirit of the deceased was still present, and could influence the future fertility of the family. In the pottery of Period II there are pictures of the deity of procreation, fertility and abundance, the Dea Mater, which are also found in figurines. In any way, the social position of the woman in this time was most important. As a matter of fact, the Stone Age cultures of Iran were matriarchies, since back then, more than ever; the people depended on the woman to give birth to healthy and strong children. The further the culture developed, the richer the graves became, by the begin of the 2nd millennium, there was even a whole necropolis.

3. Elam and the mountain tribes

3.1 Foreign influence
Iran enters its historical phase with the beginning ties with foreign cultures. In about 2400 BC, Sargon of Akkad invaded Iran, capturing Elam and reaching Persia. His grandson, Naram-Suen, repeated the procedure. It would be inaccurate to say that this had no impact on the cultures of the Iranian Mountains. As a matter of fact, the Guti had already met with the Acadians, and in about 2150 BC emerged into the Mesopotamian plains, destroying the empire and resurrecting the Sumerian city-state civilization that had persisted for about two millennia. It was Mesopotamia, which first entered the light of history, and with it numerous records telling us of its eastern neighbors. Yet the detail is limited, and our knowledge of the tribes of the Zagros Mountains and the bordering areas is very low.

3.2 Geographical situation in the 3d millennium BC
The peoples that resided in the Zagros Mountains before the Iranians came were probably related to the Elamites, and thus of unknown origin. Beside the Elamites were the Kassites, the Lullubi and the above-mentioned Guti. The three mentioned tribes were considered, also by the Elamites, to be uncivilized, barbarous and perhaps even non-human. The civilized world ended at the Zagros Mountains, and it was not until the expansion of the Achaemenids that this prejudice was, at least
partially, removed.

3.3 Elam
Although indeed related to the above-mentioned tribes of the Zagros Mountains, Elam was always an individual. Migrating southwards from the Zagros Mountains, Elam found a hospitable spot in the southern Iranian plains, a natural extension of the Fertile Crescent at the Persian Gulf (in today's Huzestan province, Iran). Their capital, Susa was perhaps founded already in the first quarter of the 3d millennium BC. Peacefully establishing themselves for several centuries, it was around 2400 BC when they were for the first time threatened for their existence. Sargon of Akkad invaded Elam, and his grandson Naram-Suen repeated this. Ironically, this was a very important period for the development of the civilization, for the Akkadians brought order to the country, and for example built important buildings in Susa. The Elamite language was now sided with the Akkadian language, often even being replaced by it. This period lasted not long. It was during Naram-Suen's reign when an Elamite, Puzur-Inshushinak by name, who was appointed as governor of Elam, revolted against the Akkadian rule. Puzur-Inshushinak did not terminate all marks of the Akkadian domination, but he raised a
very deep national feeling within the Elamites. Elamite language re-appeared in the inscriptions, new, Elamite buildings were built in Susa, and most importantly, Elamite territory was expanded. Conquests were made in the north; so far that even contact was made with the Guti. When Naram-Suen died, Puzur-Inshushinak now declared independence and invaded Babylonia, coming as far as Akkad. This was a serious blow for the Akkadians, and even though they were able to push back the Elamites, they could not stop the decline of the borders. The Guti and Lullubi now continuously invaded Mesopotamia. To the Lullubi possessions now belonged the territory between today's Baghdad and Kermanshah, the Guti dominated the north, later known as Assyria.

3.4 The awakening of the tribes and the rise of the Kassites
The many victories of the Lullubi and the Guti were marked with bas-reliefs and steles, the art of both of which was learned from the Akkadians. A series of rocks were encored by the Lullubi in the Sar-i-Pul-i-Zohab region, with at least one of them being inspired by the stele of Naram-Suen with which he celebrated victory over the Elamites. The name of this king was probably Tar Lunni.
Another, much more important bas-relief was that of Annubanini, which gave the inspiration for the famous Bisotun inscription of Darius the Great. It shows Annubanini, holding a bow and a sling, and receiving the ring of ultimate rule from the goddess Ishtar, who leads nine usurpators, whom Annubanini defeated, naked and as prisoners.
The Guti menaces eventually lead to the downfall of the Akkadian Empire. They were a serious concern already to Sargon and his successors, and, according to local sources, during the times of the last Akkadian king, Sharhalisharri, the cattle was not safe on the meadows at this time, and that trade caravans hardly ever reached their destination. According to Mesopotamian sources, the Guti were wild and barbarous hordes, only out to plunder and not caring for anything else. The final stage of the destruction of the Akkadian Empire was doubtless the destruction of the city itself. The citizens probably thought that this was an unnecessary punishment or fate.
The fall of Akkad left a vacuum in Mesopotamia. The cities themselves returned to their roots, the Sumerian city-state system, while the Guti reigned in northern Babylonia. It was Utuhengal of Uruk who terminated the Guti occupation.
The Semitic Ammonites and the rise of Babylon under Hammurabi I marked the following period of Mesopotamia. The Kassites appeared shortly after Hammurabi's death, but it took them a century to bring Mesopotamia under their control. It was only possible through peaceful migration and integration, until it was possible to start an own dynasty. Being successful for the first centuries, it was once again Elam that brought end to the Kassite domination in the 13th century BC.

4. The coming of the Iranian tribes

4.1 Historical presupposition
In the time when the Iranians migrated into the plateau that was soon to be named after them, the mountains of the west were divided into many princely states. Since the leaving of the Lullubi, Kassites and Guti there has been a power vacuum and each city was its own lord. Often local princes governed these; but this era was important for the development of the cities. Culture finally grew and it is safe to say that in this area, Iran completely enters its historical period at last.
The Iranians had made an unsuccessful attempt to settle down on the plateau in the mid-2nd millennium BC. It was not until ca. 1000 BC that they returned. There, they encountered the Assyrians, from whom we have information on the cities in the Zagros and beyond. According to Assyrian bas-reliefs these were heavily fortified, sometimes with three levels of walls and towers, central palaces, temples, large houses and so on. In the north it was different from the southern Mesopotamian plains. Here, the people built strong walls, which were sometimes backend by the rocks or mountains. The famous Babylonian walls were not built
until ca. 600 BC. In their successful eastern campaigns the Assyrians met a number of Iranian people, including Persians, Medians, Sagartians or Parthians. The former three went on to settle in or around the Zagros Mountains, where they learned a great deal from the local kingdoms.

4.2 The Bactrians
It is very probable that the Bactrians were the first of all Iranian tribes that settled down and left their nomadic way of life. The theory is popular, that the region that later became Bactria, was the actual homeland of the Iranians.
The homeland of the Bactrians is centered in today's Afghanistan. Their capital, Bactra, (today's Balkh, near Mazar-e Sharif) is situated in just south of the Piandj River. This close location to the Kazakh steppes has most probably encountered them with the Sacan tribes from early on. The Bactrians had established a very stable monarchical system as well as a defensive position to defend them against the nomad threat.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

4.3 The Medians
The Medians migrated towards the center of the plateau, most probably along with the Persians for a while. In contrary to the other tribes, the Medians were of such size, that they settled down at various points at first. Berosus mentions eight kings; the Assyrians claim to have subdued more than a thousand cities.
Herodotus gives a detailed description of the Median kings, and how they developed their empire. While his report is not always trustworthy, we can at least take an attempt of reconstructing the Median history to the point where it was taken over by the Persians, with help of the Greek historian. According to Herodotus, the first of the Median kings was Deioces. It is probable, however, that at least his father was king as well. His name was Phraortes (I.?) and it is relatively sure that his reign ended in 728 BC, but we know hardly anything else of him. Deioces however, is supposed to be the founder of the Median
dynasty of the Deiocids. Herodotus explains that he was a popular judge, who used this popularity to claim that Media must be ruled by one king. He got elected, and introduced a number of social and political reforms. He settled down the Medians in one city, which later became known as Hagmatana (Greek Agbatana, today's Hamadan). Herodotus' description of the city, as a heavy fortress, centered with a palace, is very close to the early Iranian bas-reliefs, and is trustable especially in the degree, that the Medians probably carried the idea of "Cyclopean Walls", unknown to the Mesopotamian civilization, over to Media from the Urartaeans. Deioces also introduced the typical despotic system that later became known as "oriental despoty", especially under the later Achaemenids.
His successor was Phraortes II. who got killed in a campaign against the Assyrians. His heir was Cyaxares. Under Cyaxares, Media fell into Scythian dependence, and stayed a Scythian vassal for 28 years, in which it prospered fairly, but got many impressions from it's overlord. Cyaxares finally decided to revolt, and beat the Scythians in a magnificent battle. He conquered the area south of Lake Urmia, and allied with Babylonia. His glorious troops are said to have destroyed the Assyrian capital of Niniveh.

4.4 The Persians
The Persians at first settled down in the northern area of Iran, around Lake Urmia. Here, they soon fell under control of the Urartaean Empire, from whom they learned the art of irrigation, but also the painful reality of subjugation. The Persians are mentioned in Assyrian and Urartaean inscriptions alike, as "Parsua", or sometimes "Parsumash".

4.5 Cimmerians and Scythians
Perhaps not a direct branch of the Iranian people, but nonetheless closely related to them, the Scythians never abandoned their nomadic way of life. They dominated a large part of today's Ukraine. In the 7th century BC, they migrated southwards towards Iran, as mentioned above, and conquered Media. They were, however, expelled from this territory, but this defeat became a symbol of nationalism, and deeply carved into the Scythian's minds.
The Cimmerians lived around the Azov Sea in southern Ukraine, and as time came, emerged more and more down to the Caucasus. They are said to have raided Armenia and Asia Minor, destroying the Urartaean civilization and changing things a lot in Phrygia, but they did not settle down or claimed the territory like the Scythians did, but just plundered.

4.6 The emergence of Iranian civilization
Towards the end of the 7th century BC, the Medians had subdued great parts of Iran, including the entire west. Tribes such as the Persians, Parthians, Hyrcanians and Sagartians came under Median rule. By conquest as in the case of Assyria, or by diplomacy, as in the case of Lydia, the Medians have removed all their opponents. The life in the Median "empire" was peaceful, basically because the tribes kept a lot of their independent rights, usually being just vassals. It is not certain how far the Median rule stretched to the east, whether it controlled Bactria or not, but The Medians were the first to bring unity to Iran, and they apparently were able to protect their borders; their doom came from the inside.

5. The Achaemenid empire

5.1 The End of the Median Empire
As the Median king Astyages became more powerful, his despotic might grew as well. The people became more and more unhappy under his rule, and many neglected his suzerainty. One of them was Cambyses, a Persian vassal king, who founded his own kingdom in 576 BC. His son, Cyrus, openly revolted against the Medians. He defeated them in two battles before taking their capital, Hagmatana, in 550 BC and thus ending the deiocid dynasty. However, he did not appear as a conqueror. His aim was to unite Medians and Persians under his rule, and thus, he proclaimed himself as king of the Medians; he united both empires. This is the reason why the Achaemenid Empire is often called "Empire of Medians and Persians", and why to the Greeks, the term "Medians" was equal to that of the "Persians".

5.2 Cyrus the Great (559-530 BC)
After having taken Hagmatana, Cyrus saw himself in a somewhat tough situation: In the east, the Sacans were restless, in the west, Croesus of the Lydians refused to accept the new Persian lord in the place of the Median king, and in the south, Babylonia was a weak but not loyal ally.
Cyrus was relieved from choosing against whom to intercept when Croesus crossed the Halys, which was officially proclaimed the border between Lydian and Median Empire in 585. Cyrus hurried to the Lydians, and in autumn 547, he defeated the Lydians at Pteria. Croesus then retreated in hope that Cyrus would escape from the Anatolian winter. But Cyrus pursued him at all times, and in the end, Croesus found himself besieged in his capital of Sardis, which was taken by the Persians in January 546.
While parts of the army spent the time subduing the Greek cities on the coast between Lycia and Colchis, Cyrus returned to Iran, where he fought against the Sacans and extended his territory up to the Oxus (Amu Darya). Then, in 539, he decided to assault the Babylonians, and after having defeated their resistance in one battle, he was hailed as the new Babylonian king in autumn, unifying the Persian and Babylonian empires under his rule. Until 538, the whole Babylonian Empire surrendered to him.
Cyrus introduced a number of social reforms, and he is nowadays known as the first proclaimer of human rights. In 530, Cyrus decided to get rid of the Sacan threat once and for all. After having crossed the Oxus and advancing deep into the Sacan territory, he got killed in a battle against the Massagets. His son Cambyses succeeded him.

5.3 Cambyses II. (530-522 BC)
As soon as Cambyses ascended the throne, he avenged his father by defeating the Massagets and expanding the Persian territory to the far north, the Jaxartes (Syr Darya) being his frontier. It is certain that Cyrus had already been this far; a chain of fortresses in Sogdiana -Kyroushata being the strongest- south of the Jaxartes is the proof. But Cambyses firmed the Persian control.
He then set his eyes on the last of the former oriental powers, Egypt. Egypt had undergone a number of political disturbances, especially after the death of Amasis. It offered little resistance, and after defeating them at Pelusium and Heliopolis, Cambyses owned the country (525 BC).
He then planned three further expeditions: The conquest of Carthage, which had to be abandoned because of the Phoenician) fleet's refusal, the conquest of Ammonium in Libya, which also failed, and the conquest of Nubia. The Nubian terrain however proved too tough for the Persian soldiers, and after severe fighting, Cambyses had to retreat. In the meantime, a usurper named Gaumata had claimed the throne back in the Persian homeland, and Cambyses was forced to return. In
Memphis, the Egyptian capital, however he had enraged the people by killing the sacred bull of Apis. The reasons for this act are unknown. Cambyses died on the way to his capital, Hagmatana, in Syria (according to Herodotus a town called Hagmatana).

5.4 Culture, art, architecture and administration of the early empire of the Achaemenids
After having defeated the Medians at a fortress in northern Persia named Pathragada, Cyrus the Great decided to establish his capital on that spot. The city received the name "Pasargadae", which might have derived from "Parsagad"-"Camp of the Persians". A towering wall surrounded it. Inside of this wall, two palaces (one completed by Darius the Great), two smaller buildings as well as gardens, waterways, fire altars and the Kings tomb were built.
When Cyrus died, a lot of these buildings were unfinished, but his son and successor, Cambyses, did not continue the work. In the architectural look, the palaces of Pasargadae differed vastly from those at Persepolis. Sometimes, they were even two-storied, and had no central hall of columns. Further, the palaces had far more room, and the gardens and yards were a lot larger, the paths wider than the palaces themselves, in contrary to the squeezed-together type of planning at Persepolis. This wider scope also allowed the palaces to act as they were supposed to -again in contrary to Persepolis.
The architecture, as well as the bas-relief art showed influence of foreign countries, but also show how the Persians were able to turn influences into an individual style. The tomb of Cyrus has the shape of a small house that stands on a small step pyramid. Greek masons built it. The design of the tomb is based on foreign examples, but shaped to represent an individual Iranian piece of architecture, as with later buildings in Persia. Arcades originally surrounded it, but these have vanished and only the fundaments remain.
Cyrus established a sort of provincial division, later called "Satrapies" by the Greeks. Under Cyrus, these were in the shape of the conquered territories, as he wanted them to be largely independent; such territories like the former Babylonian Empire could be described as "autonome". Of course, this was not necessarily a fair division, for the Babylonian Empire had included such territories as Palestine or Syria- but the administration worked.
A word about the army: The early Persian army could be described, as a sort of militia, since the Persian state was not as developed to support such an army all by itself. It consisted of the very typical early Iranian weapons -cavalry, archers, mounted archers-, but it also used special squadrons such as camel riders, which proved very effective. At Pteria, the strong smell of the camels was devastating, because it terrorized the Lydian horses and soldiers, and terminated the effect of the feared Lydian cavalry.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

5.5 Darius the Great (522-486 BC)
Early Years

Darius was born in about 550 BC as the son of the noble man Hystaspes, who was the son of Arsames who later became satrap of Parthia. He was educated at the royal Court, and became a member of the royal staff of Cambyses II. He accompanied Cambyses on his Egyptian campaign, and when he died in Syria, Darius returned to Persia to avenge the king and kill the Usurper. In Persia, six princes, all of who had enjoyed the education at the royal court with him, accompanied him.
Darius and his six friends went to Ecbatana to kill the usurper, and found him at his fortress Shiakavautish near the city. The man turned out to be Gaumata, the brother of Oropastes, the Magian who Cyrus left to govern the empire. Gaumata set up his own laws, which were very popular among the people, but pretty much destroyed the whole administration of the empire. Gaumata pretended to be Bardiya, the brother of Cambyses. Darius killed him and his staff. He was then crowned as king of Persia at Pasargadae.

Conquering an empire

The death of the Magian however enraged the people of the empire, and one after another began to revolt. The most serious revolts were in Babylon, where twice a pretender arose, while others turned out as tough, especially in Media and Persia. At one point, the whole empire, from Egypt to Central Asia was in revolt. Darius, his six companions and a small army managed to suppress all the revolts within two years, and by 520, all the rebels and a confederation of the Sacan tribes of Central Asia have been defeated.


New Administration

In the following years, Darius did a great deal of work to re-organize and stabilize the empire. Neither Cyrus nor Cambyses could lay a firm foundation for an empire of this size, with so many ethnical and cultural differences, and with the many specially treated provinces and semi-dependent territories, the political picture of the Persian empire was chaotically.
It is clear that Darius divided the vast territory into several satrapies, or provinces, all of which with the same laws and administration, although largely underlying native ideas and economy. The exact division into satrapies is unknown. Herodotus gives a list of twenty satrapies, all of which however are agglomerations of several tribes. Far more trustable are the Persian inscriptions in which the Great King gives a list of peoples that are united under his rule. These peoples also appear on the
bas-reliefs on the royal tombs and in Persepolis. They are: Persians, Medians, Elamites, Parthians, Areians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Chorasmian (Khwarizmians), Drangianans, Arachosians, Sattagydians, Gandharans, Indians, Saka Haumavirga (Massagets), Saka Tigraxauda ("Peak-helmeted Sakans"), Babylonians, Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Cappadocians, Lydians, Ionians, Sacans across the sea (Scythians), Thracians, Ionians with the Petasos (Macedonians?), Libyans, Ethiopians, Makranans and Carians. The Bas-reliefs of Persepolis also mention the Arabs, although these were only vassals to the Persians.
These provinces had to pay a specially defined tribute, which might have looked similar to the presents of the gift-bringer relieves of the Apadana (Persepolis). Apart from that, a carefully thought-out road system was built, that combined the most important areas of the empire with each other. In most cases, the roads were based on old trade routes. The most well known of these "royal highways" is the one described by Herodotus that lead from Ephesus/Sardis to Susa. All along the highways, there were postal stations that provided messengers with horses, beds and food. The excellently thought-out concept allowed a rider to travel 300 km per day, making it not even a week before a message from Sardis arrived in Susa. Also, a new currency was set up. The unit was the Dareikos, which was followed by the Siglos and the Mine.
Also, a new official language was chosen, Aramaean. The Persian language got a new script, but this was used only in official inscriptions. Administrative notes and inscriptions were written in Elamite during Darius' time, and afterwards in Aramaean.
Darius also chose to erect new capitals. Apart from Pasargadae and Ecbatana, he chose Susa, the ancient Elamite Empire, and founded a new one, Persepolis (see below). Other cities that gained an important status were Babylon and Sardis, both of which being capitals of ancient empires that the Persians conquered, Bactra, as the center of the eastern empire, Damascus, and after the conquest of the Indus valley, Taxila as a central mercantile spot.

Interventions in Europe

During these years, got message from far-off lands, including Greece. He heard of the rich culture, and of the profit of owning this land. He sent out an expedition to explore the coast of Italy (515) and started diplomatic relations with Athens (ca. 514). In 513, he set off for a campaign into the European part of Scythians to halt the continuing raids on his empire. Pro-Greek historians falsely thought that this was an attempt of Darius to take Europe or the Balkans. Athens' tyrant Hippias and his supported him ally, Miltiades III. of Chersonesos. To clear his back, Darius conquered Thrace, and made Macedonia at least a vassal. For the first time now, the great army of the Persians showed to the Greeks. They thought that Darius was invincible with all these mighty soldiers.
The campaign was unsuccessful because the Scythians fled and burnt all towns and farms, making Darius find no enemies and no hospitable land. But half of the Greek world was now in his hands, after having suppressed a Cyrenaican revolt in 512. Already in 514 he had conquered India, making his empire stretch from the Indus and Central Asia to Libya and Thessaly. This impressed the Greeks who sent envoys and artists to the royal court.
In 510, a revolution broke out in Athens, and in 508 a Spartan tyrant was overthrown, making Athens democratic. At first, they allied up with Persia in 506, but they broke the treaty when the Ionian revolt broke out.

War with Greece

In 500 BC, a revolt broke out among the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor. In 498, these Ionians, under the leadership of a man named Aristagoras, even burned Sardis. Athens and its ally, Eretria, as well as Macedonia and Thrace supported them. In 497, the Persians started suppressing the revolt, landing in Cyprus, to which the uprising has also spread. Several bloody battles occurred in the following year, and in 494, the Ionians were defeated at Lade and the Persians took Miletus, the capital of Ionia, thus crushing the revolt.
The following year, a highly decorated general named Mardonios was sent out to negotiate with the Greeks, but his fleet was wrecked off the cliffs of Mt. Athos. In 491, another band of envoys was sent off to demand a token of earth and a token of water from the Greeks, because the king planned to invade Greece. Those cities that would give this earth and water to the envoys would be spared. Most cities did so, but Athens and Sparta refused. The Spartans always thought of the Aegean being divided into a "Spartan" and a "Persian zone" and thus never intervened in Persian policy. The demand for surrender was regarded as an insult, and thus the Spartans heavily mistreated, or even killed, the messengers. Darius then sent out a fleet, which was commanded by Datis, and an army, commanded by Artaphernes, to fight Athens and its allies.
Avoiding the cliffs of Mt. Athos, the fleet took the way right through the Aegean, gathering new allies, but also new enemies. Finally, the fleet landed at Euboea and besieged Eretria. The siege would most probably have failed, or at least taken a lot longer, if not a traitor would have opened the gates. Artaphernes then committed a great diplomatic mistake. He burnt the city to the ground and deported its population to Elam instead of attempting to negotiate with Athens again; this was the real begin of the "Persian War".
Datis now started sailing around Attica to besiege Athens from the seaside, while Artaphernes landed at the plain of Marathon, setting up a camp, waiting for the Greeks to strike against them. At first, the Athenians asked Sparta for help, but they were busy crushing a revolt. Because they did not want to blame themselves, they gave message that they were in the middle of a religious ceremony and that they would send help only nine days later. Nonetheless, the Athenians got support from Plataea. They defeated the Persians at the battle of Marathon (September 19th 490), and pursuited them across the Aegean with little success. The Persians might still have taken Athens from the seaside, but the soldiers arrived early enough to prevent any other act. Enraged, Darius set up a new, even larger army to once again invade Greece, but at first, Egypt fell in revolt, and before Darius could act, he died.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

5.6 Persepolis
According to some sources the name originally given by the Greeks to this city was Perseptolis, "Destroyer of the cities", however that is a very speculative theory. Persepolis means "City of the Persians". To the Persians, the city didn't have a name, just the label given to the country and people as well- Parsa.
Darius I. founded the city in about 515 BC. A large terrace was built, and originally, only three buildings have been planned along with the great staircase. The first one was a monumental audience hall that was placed in direct access by the staircase. In ancient Persian, the name was Apadana. Today, the building's towering columns still dominate the site of the city.
Access to the building was given by a monumental staircase, which is decorated by a number of large bas-reliefs, showing all the peoples of the empire, persian aristocrats, soldiers and a very typical picture of a lion killing it's prey, in this case a bull. The next building planned by Darius was a small palace on an artificial hill just in front of the Apadana (tachara). In comparison with all other buildings in Persepolis, and also the palace at Susa, this building is a very small and humble one. It is assumed that it was used mostly for official causes. It, too, was decorated with bas-reliefs on the in- and outside, however smaller than those on the Apadana. The most remarkable remains of the building however are its majestic door- and window frames. Many of them are still complete.
The third of the original buildings was the treasure house. After few years, it already contained so many treasures, that it had to be extended under Darius' rule, and once again under Xerxes. Xerxes I. at first extended the buildings of his father. He changed the Apadana by building a second staircase. He also built new private palaces (hadish), a new monumental gate, and a whole new audience hall, the Hall of the hundred columns. None of these buildings were finished by Xerxes, so the work had to be carried on by his son Artaxerxes, who built the last great buildings: The tripylon, a large gate leading directly to Xerxes' palace, and the most parts of the hadish, most probably most of the private rooms and the queen's apartments. After Artaxerxes' death however, the construction work was stopped, and under Darius II. and Artaxerxes II., only the tomb of the latter was built here, the unfinished buildings remained unfinished.
It was not until Artaxerxes III. that the construction work was resumed, but these buildings - a new palace, an entrance hall larger than all other gates, and other buildings, as well as the tomb of Artaxerxes III. - were left mostly unfinished when the Macedonian conquerors under Alexander the Great entered the city in 330 BC and plundered the city, as well as destroying the palace of Xerxes by fire.

5.7 The Achaemenids from Xerxes I. (486-465) to Artaxerxes IV. (338-336)
Xerxes was born about 520 or 519 BC as the son of Darius the Great (522-486) and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great (559-529). He had numerous brothers of the same mother, and many half brothers and sisters. He was appointed as viceroy of Babylon in about 500 BC. According to Herodotus, when Darius died there was a debate about who was to become king. Artobazanes demanded to become king because he was the eldest of all of Darius' sons. But a Spartan named Demaratus advised Xerxes to claim the throne, for he was the eldest of the sons born during Darius' reign.
Before Darius died, he had established a new large army to crush an Egyptian revolt, and to invade Greece. Xerxes now used this army to suppress the Egyptian revolt, and later on a Babylonian one. He then returned to his court to enjoy the royal dolce vita. The Bible (Book of Esther) gives a good description of this life.
In 483 or 482 however, Xerxes decided to continue the war in Greece begun by his father. According to Herodotus, it was a man named Onomacritus who convinced him in doing so. However it was, Xerxes began establishing a new army, and allied up with the Carthaginian Empire, which was supposed to fight the Greeks in Sicily and Italy. In 480, Xerxes crossed the Hellespont on a bridge made out of boats. According to Herodotus, the army consisted of 5,283,220 men.
These numbers are totally exaggerated; The army probably consisted of 100,000 or 200,000 men and about 500 ships. Well-remembering the disaster that happened to Mardonius in 492 BC, Xerxes ordered to dig a canal between Mt. Athos and the mainland to assure that the ships could safely sail through. The army could march through Thessaly, which was still a loyal ally to Persia, but met resistance at the passes of Thermopylae. The Spartan king Leonidas I. had assembled an army here. Since Thermopylae is a narrow pass, it was easy to defend. But a traitor named Ephialtes lead the Persians around the pass on a mountain path. When Leonidas heard this, he sent most of his army home except for 1000 men, who were all killed along with him. This act was later celebrated as a "heroic stand", but it was rather poor strategy of Leonidas, for if he had retreated, he might have challenged Xerxes in an opened field battle and might even have defeated him like Miltiades defeated the Persians in 490 BC. Now Xerxes had free access to Attica. He took Athens, and attempted to defeat the Greek fleet at Salamis, as he had already done at Artemision. But instead, the Persians suffered a great defeat. Xerxes now did something unbelievably stupid: He went back to Asia with two thirds of his still intact army instead of simply invading the Pelopponesus by land- the Spartans have lost a great part of their army at Thermopylae and would most probably not have been able to resist a Persian invasion. Mardonius was assigned with the command of the army. He went to Thessaly into winter camp. In the following year, he attempted to negotiate with Athens, making very interesting offers, but Athens refused, and so he invaded Attica again, destroying Athens largely. But then, he was defeated at Plataea in 479 BC. This battle is thought of being the bloodiest battle of ancient history.
After having destroyed the Persian fleet at Mycale on the same day, the Greeks now had simple game in liberating all Greek cities in Ionia. Cimon, an important Athenian politician even went a step further in liberating all Greek cities under Persian control.
Frustrated of the defeat at Salamis, Xerxes retreated to Persepolis. He was murdered along with his son Darius by a palace guard. Xerxes was succeeded by Artaxerxes I. (465-424 BC). It was a hard time, for in the same year of his accession, the Athenians defeated the Persians at the battle of the Eurymedon, and Cimon's expansion policy would cost Persia all Greek cities in their possession. But they could not conquer Cyprus; Inaros was defeated at Salamis in ca. 459.
During this time, Cimon sailed down to Egypt, trying to liberate Naucratis, a Greek trading post, and rising Egypt in revolt, hoping to find an ally with whom to trade. In 454 however, the Athenians were defeated and had to retreat. The war against Greece had lasted since 500 BC now, and the offensive policy of Cimon could never give the Persians a breath or a chance for a diplomatic settling.
In 451, Cimon once again raised a fleet to conquer Cyprus and Egypt. Although being partially successful winning several battles on Cyprus, they did not reach Egypt due to the death of Cimon. This allowed Cimons opponents to take power in Greece. They were lead by Pericles, who was ready to compromise with Persia. In 449/48, the so-called Kallias' peace was signed. It was not much more than the officialization of the status quo, but it showed that Pericles did no longer want to expand Athens's rule, that he no longer wanted to follow Cimon's policy.
Artaxerxes died in 424 BC, and was succeeded by Xerxes II., who reigned for just 45 days, when Sogdianos killed him, who, in return, got killed by Ochus after 6 1/2 months. Ochus then took the throne as Darius II. Darius' reign was overshadowed by corruption and intrigues. In 412, he allied with Sparta thus entering the Peloponnesian Wars and terminating the relation to Athens. Towards the end of his reign, the empire rose in revolt, and his son Artaxerxes II. was incapable of bringing the situation under control. This found its peak in the revolt of his brother, Cyrus, who marched against the King with 13,000 Greek mercenaries, only to be defeated at Cunaxa (401). According to Xenophon, who described this war and the retreat of the 10,000 survivors, this must also have been the time when Egypt became independent of the empire.
Not long after that, again, the Spartan king Agesilaus started war against the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, in hope of liberating Ionia - but it was 10,000 archers, minted on gold coins, who brought about his retreat. Soon afterwards, Persia and Sparta went to war against Athens, and in 386, the peace of Antalcidas was signed, granting Persia all possessions in Asia Minor and Cyprus, and in about 375, the Greek cities of northern Asia Minor came back to the empire as well. The tide turned however, when the satraps in the west started revolts in about 360, and carried on into the reign of Artaxerxes III. (359-338). These revolts however were not as threatening to the power of the Persian King, for they were crushed fairly early, and allowed the Great King to go into the offensive, also being able to control Athens' policy for the most time. In 343, revolting Sidon in Phoenicia was destroyed, and Egypt was retaken in 342. The eunuch Bagoas, who not later killed Artaxerxes IV, killed Artaxerxes. (Arses) before in return being killed by Darius III.

5.8 Susa, Naqsh-e Rostam and Pasargadae
Aside from Persepolis, Darius also raised Susa as a new capital of his empire. Susa had been the capital of the Elamite Empire from ca. 4000 to 650 BC. Here, he also built an Apadana, as well as a magnificent palace with relieves of glazed bricks and other materials from all over the empire. The palace was however destroyed in a fire, but we still have the enameled relieves which give a good impression of the palace's greatness.
At Pasargadae, he ordered the buildings of Cyrus the Great to be finished. Darius also ordered a new palace to be built at Pasargadae. It had little in common with the palace of Cyrus the Great. There were two porticae, both longer than the main room itself, while that of Cyrus was surrounded by column halls.
Further, Darius re-introduced the traditional Iranian rock tombs. Cyrus built his tomb in shape of a house with typical Greek and Egyptian elements. Darius ordered his tomb to be similar to those of the early Persians. It was shaped like a cross, with a monumental bas-relief on top showing Darius worshipping Ahura Mazda and his symbol, the sacred fire. On the same relief, there was an inscription in which Darius described himself, his empire and his policy. He was "carried" by all the peoples of his empire. The carving was flanked by bas-reliefs of soldiers of the royal guard. In the center, there was the entrance. The central part does have the characteristic of the porticos of a typical Persian house. The lower part was left empty. Later on, the Sasanians put several carvings below the tomb. The tomb was copied by all of Darius' successors.

5.9 The Macedonian Conquest
It was only two years after Darius III. came on the throne when the Macedonians under Alexander the Great invaded Asia Minor (334 BC), defeating the Persian forces at Granicus and advancing southwards taking Miletus, and, after a long siege, Halicarnassus. After resting in Gordium over the winter 334/333, he pushed on
southwards, expecting to meet his enemy, the commander Memnon of Rhodes, and, after he died, Darius himself rushed to Syria, leaving his court at Damascus and facing the Macedonian army near Issus. After soundly defeating the Persians, Alexander advanced further to Tyrus, laid siege to the city, and, after destroying it, carried the same fate to Gaza. After spending a while in Egypt, he continued the campaign in 331, defeating Darius once again at Gaugamela in northern Mesopotamia. He then took Babylon, which seemed to be unhappy against the Persian rulers, then Susa, taking the throne of the Achaemenids, and, after much bloodshed in Persia itself, Persepolis. Darius meanwhile fled to Hagmatana (Ecbatana), hoping to face Alexander in one final, decisive battle, but found himself pursuited by the Macedonians until being killed by Bessos, the satrap of Bactria, at Damghan (330). Bessos himself pretended to be Artaxerxes V., but this had little success, because he was captured and sent to Hagmatana to be punished by death for usurpation.
Alexander more and more fell to the life of the Persian court, but he was a clever administrator. Peukestas, the man he appointed to be satrap of Persia, was successful at gaining control over the satrapy-no unrest, in contrary to other areas. When Alexander died at Babylon in 323 BC, his son, Alexander IV, and his half-brother, Philippos III., succeeded him but the true masters of the empire were the generals, or diadochi. After many wars, these had established themselves firmly, and Ptolemaios and his successors ruled Egypt, Macedonia by the Antigonids, and Asia by Seleukos Nikator and the likes.
The Seleucids were not very successful in holding their position. Seleukos himself had to give in to the Indian king Candragupta Maurya, with whom close ties later evolved. Seleukos lost many territories, but in return, got 500 war elephants from Candragupta, as well as the unique opportunity to establish an embassy in far Pattaliputra. Megasthenes was the chosen one, and his Indica was the first detailed report of a westerner about this country.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

6. The Parthians

6.1 The Parthian Expansion
Soon, the Seleucids also lost Bactria to Diodotus I. and Parthia to Andragoras, the latter soon being killed by the Parnians. These, under the leadership of Arsaces,
after whom the dynasty is named the Arsacid, were able to expand their possessions to the Caspian area (Hyrcania). Antiochus III. however, was able to suppress
them, and was able to extend his territory to eastern Iran. These successes were temporary. Not long afterwards, Persia and Elam were lost, and after the Romans
defeated Antiochus, the Parnians (now called Parthians after their new home) conquered many parts of Iran. Meanwhile, the Bactrians could conquer parts of India,
forever ending the hopes of the Seleucids to gain control over that area again.
The greatest conqueror of this time was Mithridates I. who successfully subdued western Iran and Mesopotamia, driving the Seleucids back to Syria, and these were
unable to strike back. Phraates II. and Artabanus I. could safely establish themselves, defeating the last Seleucid resistance under Antiochus VII. For a while,
however, the Parthians were unsuccessful against some of the Nomad tribes from the north.
After the first interventions in Armenia followed first contacts with the Romans, and these were peaceful. But Crassus, who attacked Parthia in 53 BC, and was
defeated and killed by general Surenas at Carrhae, stopped these developments. Further expansions of the Parthians into Syria and Asia Minor however could be
halted.

6.2 Parthian Development in the shadow of Rome
The Parthians were still, despite inner troubles, successful in keeping the Romans off their territory; Antonius, although reaching Armenia and Media Atropatene,
could be defeated. In 20 BC, negotiations between Rome and Parthia were successful; the credit for this goes to emperor Augustus. The sons of King Phraates IV.
were taken to Rome for education. In 12 AD, Vonones I. had to fight, because the aristocracy would not accept a King raised in Rome. The Roman intervention
could not calm the disorder, and after the pretender Artabanus II. died, two Kings, Vardanes and Gotarzes II. fought against each other; shortly afterwards, under
King Vologeses I. the Roman-Parthian relation grew more tense about the eternal problem of Armenia. And after 72, the empire fell into even larger disorder
because of continuous anarchy, foreign invasions of the Alans as well as revolt. When King Osroes invaded Armenia, emperor Trajan decided to campaign against
Parthia. With his legions, he reached the Persian Gulf until 117, and could establish three new provinces, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria, and despite a defeat at
Hatra, he could even take the Parthian winter residence of Ctesiphon, which was once founded as a counterweight to Seleucia. Hadrianus, who had no interest in
these territories, succeeded Trajan, who died during the campaign and the Euphrates was once again declared the official border between the two empires. Only
Mesene could keep itself independent from both, until 151.
In 161, yet another war followed after a Parthian attack on Armenia and Syria, and the Romans under Avidius Cassius took Ctesiphon, and made Dura Europus
Roman; the Romans had to retreat after their armies were struck by plague. In the civil war in Rome in the 190s, Parthia allied with the Syrian governor Niger, but
after Septimius Severus defeated him, he once again started a war against Parthia, establishing the new province of Mesopotamia, and again reaching Ctesiphon; and
his successor Caracalla was able to destabilize the situation so much that local Kings, especially in Persia, which had been a vassal of Parthia, grew in power, and
Pabag and Ardaxshir extended their area to all of south-western Iran, until in 224, the Persians were able to defeat the Parthian King Artabanus IV, destroying the
Arsacid empire.

6.3 The Parthian Civilization
It is obvious that the Parthians did not establish such a unique culture as their Iranian predecessors, the Achaemenid Persians did. Fact is, that the Parthians already
entered a civilized world in which elements of the Greek culture and of the Persian culture have lived side by side. It was, however, clearly the Parthians work to unite
both cultures. The Parnians, originally nomads, had no cultural history they could speak of, in contrary to the Persians.
One very obvious fact is, that the Parthians, once they had established themselves, took many elements of the Greek culture and did not -as the Persians had done
with the conquered cultures- shape them their own way, or introduce them into their own culture. Many proofs of the intact overtake of the Greek culture can be
found particularly in the Parthian capitals Nisa and Hecatompylos. Here, aside from smaller objects such as rhytae in shape of Greek gods and goddesses and with
Greek mythological carvings on them, and larger ones such as Greek statues, particularly the architecture shows much Greek influence; however, it is also the
architecture that shows Iranian elements.
It is, however, wrong to claim that the Parthians had no individual art development. Many pieces of clearly non-Greek style have been found in many parts of the
empire, as well as beyond its frontiers. Hatra, for example, shows many Parthian elements of art and architecture (in particular the "Iwans", large rooms, open to one
side and with a rounded roof). Another very famous object of Parthian art is the so-called "Prince of Shami", a bronze statue, thought to resemble a prince, which has
only lost its arms. The anatomy is not perfect -the head is too small- but the work is brilliant, and it reveals the Parthian clothing and ornaments very well.
Also, Parthian coinage shows the interesting mix of Iranian and Greek elements, and also provides us with a complete chronology of Parthian rulers.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

7. The Sassanid Empire

7.1 The situation of the Persians after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire
As we have seen, Alexander the Great handed the area of Parsa (Greek Persis) to the most able man, Peukestas. Peukestas was able to calm the Persians by
adopting their language and culture and by negotiating with the aristocracy. At the end of the 3d century BC, however, the Persians were given local rulers, who
described themselves as frataraka, and are mostly known only for their coins. To the Parthians, they were as loyal as to the Seleucids, but when the Parthian power
crippled, as described above, the Frataraka Ardaxshir IV. openly revolted.

7.2 The early Sassanid Expansion
The Parthians could not recover from the disorders that struck their possessions, because the Roman aggressions, as we have seen, allowed the Persians to expand
their domains. It is not clear whether it was the refusal of Artabanus to accept Ardaxshir as the new Persian vassal, or Ardaxshirs own drive to destroy the Parthian
empire that brought about the fall of the Arsacids. In any way, on April 28th 224 AD, Ardaxshir defeated Artabanus and until Ardaxshir's abdication in 239 or 240,
the Persians had conquered all former Parthian domains, with the exception of Armenia, had halted Roman aggressions under Alexander Severus, and, towards the
end of Ardaxshir's reign, have taken Nisibis and Carrhae.
Ardaxshir's son Shabuhr I. (240-271/72) was more successful, taking Hatra, defeating Gordianus III., and driving deep into the Roman Empire, even taking Antioch
and parts of Asia Minor. He was the one to capture emperor Valerianus, but was unable to keep these posessions, because the Palmyran Odenathus defeated him.
After 277, however, Persian power fell to aristocratic troubles and a war between Vahram II. and Hormizd, which brought about a new, and more successful Roman
invasion under Carus (283), until a treaty was signed between Vahram and emperor Diocletian.
This treaty, which brought about the loss of Mesopotamia and Armenia, was the temporary peak of the Roman power in the east, and Hormizd II. attempted to
regain these posessions without success. It was not until the ascendance of Shabuhr II. that Persia was not only able to fight off the Romans, but also to go into the
offensive themselves. During his long reign (309-379), the Persians defeated the Roman emperor Iulianus who had reached Ctesiphon (363). It was also the time of
the first aggressions against the Christians, however politically motivated; they were bound to the Christians in the Roman Empire, and thus in contact with the enemy.
In 387, the eastern part of Armenia again became Persian.

7.3 Inner Persian troubles and the Hephtalites
Finally, in 408/9, an agreement was found between Romans and Persians, but now, Persia was facing a new enemy: The Hephtalite (`White Huns`) of Central Asia,
who broke into Iran, and defeated King Peroz (459-484) twice in 465 and 484, and brought about tributary dependence to the Persians. This caused the entire
economy of the Empire to break down, famines and disorders breaking out on all sides. The Feudal system of the Sassanid Empire was attacked directly by a
religious leader named Mazdak. His demands were clear, that everybody should have the right to possess land, and not to be dependant of the local princes. These
revolts were supported by Kavad I. who in return was deposed by the aristocracy in 496 and replaced by Zamasp; in 499 however, he compromised with the
nobility and he and his successor Xusro (Chosroes) I. (531-579) crushed the revolts brutally. This phase, however, brought about weakness of the nobles, and both
rulers were able to introduce numerous social, economical and military reforms, including a fair tax system. The Empire was divided into four military districts.
Under Xusro, the empire was stable enough again to go into the offensive against the East Romans (Byzantines) in 540; in 562 he defeated them, raising the tributes
the Byzantines had to pay towards the Persians. Further, he drove the Ethiopians, allies to the Byzantines, out of the Yemen and occupied the area himself (571). But
the most important feat was the strike against the Hephtalites. Allied with the Turks, he destroyed their empire, ending the dependant era. Trade and science
flourished during Xusros reign. His son and successor, Hormizd IV. (579-590) however provoked new quarrels with the nobility, and a heavy war was fought
against the Turks.
After Hormizd's death, a pretender accessed the throne, Vahram Chobin, but Xusro II (590-628) defeated him with Byzantine help.

7.4 Xusro II. and the fall of the Empire
In 604, however, Xusro started war against the Byzantines, and was hugely successful at first, taking large parts of Asia Minor and Syria, as well as Egypt (619),
carrying off the sacred cross from Jerusalem in 614. The tide turned after an unsuccessful siege on Constantinople however, and Emperor Heraclius himself counter
struck after 626, taking Ctesiphon and forcing the Persians to give up all conquered territories. Rebellious nobles killed Xusro.
This brought about the decline of the empire when it seemed to be at its zenith. Between 628 and 633 there were eight rulers until Yazdgird III. (633-651) took the
throne; but at that time, the Arab conquerors stood at the Persian frontiers. Although the Persian resistance was tough, the Arabs remained unbeaten, defeating the
Persians at Qadisiyya (636) and Nihavand (642). Yazdgird retreated to the east, trying to raise new armies, but being killed in Merv in 651-thus ends the history of
the Sassanid Empire.

7.5 The Sassanid Civilization
The Sassanid Persians identified themselves deeply with their Iranian origin, in contrary to the Parthians. During the Parthian epoch, nothing of the ancient
Achaemenid Empire remained but the dark knowledge of a great Persian Empire, to which the Sassanids felt related, although they did not even know the names of
the kings. They did carried the title the Parthians took from the Achaemenids ("King of Kings") and changed it their way- Shahan Shah Eran ud Aneran- "King of
Kings of Iran and not-Iran".
As we have seen, the Sassanid Empire was based on a feudal system. The non-urban population was dependant of the local princes. However, we can also find the
satrapal organization that existed in Achaemenid and Parthian times.
Sassanid art had its own individual Iranian development, and we can find many representations of the Kings on plates, coins and bas-reliefs; the latter being from
different style than that of the Achaemenids (we can for example find battle scenes and triumphs). The Sassanids were strict believers to the Zoroastrian religion, and
religious suppression -at least towards the Christians- is proved. Later, however, many suppressed religions -Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Judaism- found their
home here. The ancient site of Naqsh-e Rostam was sacred to the Sassanids, and many monumental bas-reliefs and inscriptions were placed here, in the shades of
the ancient past. The Sassanid architecture was dominated by domes and iwans, and much influence by the Roman architecture- in return however inspired Byzantine
and eastern architecture. The Sassanids acted as a "medium" for eastern literature that was brought to the west by the Persians and later the Arabs. But there was
also Persian literature, and its tradition lived on, and later inspired many medieval works. Finally, the Xvaday-namag, the "Book of Lords" was later reworked by
Firdowsi as the Shahnameh, "Book of Kings", a piece of world literature.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

8. Appendix

The Main Dynasties

MEDIAN KINGS
DEIOCIDS
Deiokes (Daiukku)
700-647 BC
Phraortes (Khshathrita)
647-625 BC
Cyaxares
625-585 BC
Astyages
585-550 BC


PERSIAN KINGS
ACHAEMENIDS
Achaemenes (Hachamanish)
Ca. 700-675 BC
Teispes (Tshishpish)
675-640 BC
Cyrus I. (Kurush)
640-600 BC
Cambyses I. (Kambujiya)
600-559 BC
Cyrus II. the Great
559-529 BC
Cambyses II.
529-522 BC
Gaumata Bardiya
522 BC
Darius I. the Great (Darayavaush)
522-486 BC
Xerxes I. (Xshayarshan)
486-465 BC
Artaxerxes I. Menmon (Artaxshacha)
465-424 BC
Xerxes II.
424 BC
Sekyndianos (Sogdianos)
424-423 BC
Darius II. Ochus
423-404 BC
Artaxerxes II. Arsaces
404-359 BC
Artaxerxes III. Ochus
359-338 BC
Artaxerxes IV. Arses
338-336 BC
Darius III. Codomannus
336-330 BC
Artaxerxes V. Bessos
330 BC


MACEDONIAN KINGS
SELEUCIDS
Alexander III. the Great
330-323 BC
Philippus III. Arrhidaios
323-316 BC
Alexander IV.
316-312 BC
Seleucus I. Nikator
323/305-281 BC
Antiochus I. Soter
281-261 BC
Antiochus II. Theos
261-246 BC
Seleucus II. Kallinikos
246-225 BC
Seleucus III. Soter
225-223 BC
Antiochus III. the Great
223-187 BC
Seleucus IV. Philopator
187-175 BC
Antiochus IV. Epiphanes
175-164 BC
Antiochus V. Eupator
164-162 BC
Demetrius I. Soter
162-150 BC
Alexander Balas
150-145 BC
Demetrius II. Nikator
145-141 BC
Antiochus VI. Epiphanes
145-142 BC
Antiochus VII. Sidetes
138-129 BC
Demetrius II. Nikator
129-125 BC


PARTHIAN KINGS
ARSACIDS
Arsaces I.
247/38-217 BC
Arsaces II.
217-191 BC
Phriapatios
191-176 BC
Phraates I.
175-171 BC
Mithradates I.
171-139/38 BC
Phraates II.
139/38-128 BC
Artabanus I. (Ardavan)
128-124/23 BC
Mithradates II.
124/23-88/87 BC
Gotarzes I.
91/90-81/80 BC
Orodes I.
81/80-76/75 BC
Sinatrukes
78/77-71/70 BC
Phraates III.
71/70-58/57 BC
Mithradates III.
58/57 BC
Orodes II.
58/57-38 BC
Phraates IV.
38-3/2 BC
Phraates V.
2 BC-2 AD
Orodes III.
4-6 AD
Vonones I.
8/9 AD
Artabanus II.
10/11-38 AD
Vardanes
38-45 AD
Gotarzes II.
43/44-51 AD
Vonones II.
51 AD
Vologeses I. (Valaxsh)
51-76/80 AD
Pakoros
77/78-108/09 AD
Vologeses II.
77/78 AD
Artabanus III.
79-81 AD
Osroes
198/09-127/28 AD
Vologeses III.
111/12-147/48 AD
Vologeses IV.
147/48-191/92 AD
Vologeses V.
191/92-207/08 AD
Vologeses VI.
207/08-221/22 / 227/28 AD
Artabanus IV.
213-224 AD


PERSIAN KINGS
SASSANIDS
Ardaxshir I.
224-239/40 (abdication)
Shabuhr I.
239/40-270/72
Hormizd I.
270/72-273
Vahram I.
273-276
Vahram II.
276-293
Vahram III.
293
Narseh
293-302
Hormizd II.
302-309
Shabuhr II.
309-379
Ardaxshir II.
379-383
Shabuhr III.
383-388
Vahram IV.
388-399
Yazdgird I.
399-421
Vahram V. Gor
421-439
Yazdgird II.
439-457
Hormizd III.
457-459
Peroz
459-484
Valaxsh
484-488
Kavad I.
488-496; 499-531
Zamasp
496-498
Xusro/Husrav I. Anoshirvan
531-579
Hormizd IV.
579-590
Xusro II.
590-628
Vahram VI. Chobin
590-591
Kavad II.
628
Ardaxshir III.
628-630
Shahrbaraz
630
Xusro III.
630
Puran
630-631
Azarmigduxt
631
Hormizd V.
631-632
Xusro IV.
631-633
Yazdgird III.
633-651

Bibliography (Selective)

Erdmann, K.: Die Kunst Irans Zur Zeit Der Sasaniden, Berlin, 1943
Ghirshman, R.: Iran - From The Earliest Times To The Islamic Conquest, Paris, 1951
Herodotus: Histories
Hrouda, B.: Mesopotamien, Munich, 1997
Koch, H.: Es Kündet Dareios Der König..., Mainz, 1992
Junge, P.J.: Dareios I. König Der Perser, Leipzig, 1944
Sarkhosh Curtis, V.: Persian Myths, London, 1993
Wiesehöfer, J.: Das Antike Persien Von 550 v.Chr. Bis 650 n.Chr., Munich, 1994
Wiesehöfer, J.: Das Frühed Persien, Munich, 1999

Extended Bibliography

Arrianus, "The Campaigns of Alexander", London 1971
Curtius, Q., " The History of Alexander", London 1984
Herodot, "Historien", Stuttgart 1971
Plutarch, "Alexander/Caesar", Stuttgart 1996
Xenophon, "Anabasis", Stuttgart

Baltrusch, E., "Sparta", Munich 1998
Bengtson, H. (Hrsg.), "Griechen und Perser", Frankfurt, 1965
Briant, P., "De la Grece a l'Orient, Alexandre le Grand", Paris 1987
Briant, P., "Darius, les Perses, et l'Empire", Paris 1992
Curtis, V.S., "Persian Myths", London 1993
Deißmann, M. (Hrsg.), "Daten zur antiken Chronologie und Geschichte", Stuttgart 1990
Droysen, J.G., "Alexander der Große", Berlin 1833
Erdmann, K., "Die Kunst Irans Zur Zeit Der Sasaniden", Berlin, 1943
Fischer-Fabian, S., "Der Traum vom Frieden der Völker, Alexander der Grosse"
Funke, P., "Athen in klassischer Zeit", Munich 1999
Gehrke, H., "Alexander der Große", Munich 1996
Ghirshman, R., "Iran", Paris 1951
Göbl, R., "Sasanian Numismatics", Braunschweig, 1971
Junge, P.J., "Dareios I. König der Perser", Leipzig 1944
Koch, H., "Es kündet Dareios der König...", Mainz 1992
Koch, H., "Persepolis", Mainz 2001
Krefeld, H. (Hrsg.), "Hellenika", Frankfurt 1966
Lotze, D., "Griechische Geschichte", Munich 1997
Mann, G./Heuß, A., "Propyläen Weltgeschichte Bde. 2/3", Frankfurt-Berlin 1985
Sami, A., "Persepolis", Shiraz 1955
Wiesehöfer, J., "Das antike Persien von 550 v.Chr. bis 650 n.Chr.", Munich 1994
Wiesehöfer, J., "Das frühe Persien", Munich 1999
Wiesehöfer, J., "Die 'dunklen' Jahrhunderte der Persis", Munich 1994
Will, W., "Alexander der Große" Stuttgart u.a. 1986

 

[pawpaw]

how many decades to write this? very nice indeed

 

[Pangur Bán]

Hah! A long one. I'll read it later tonight. BTW, when was it written? Why? and How long did it take you?

Please forgive my curiosity

 

[Stefan Haertel]

Hm, I can't really remember when and why I wrote it. Explorer says it was last modified in August '01, so I guess that's when I finished it. I believe it took me several months of occasinally writing on it.
Why... I was very into Iranian history at that time, and I felt I wanted to share this. I originally wanted to post this on the web but found no suitable place (now I have).
I must admit some things:

I haven't read it through since that time as well. I'm not so much into this stuff as I was back then. Actually, I haven't done anything remotely of this kind since at least one year when I had to write a summary of Alexander's history for school.
I'm not so fresh on this anymore as I was back then, so I may need some time to reply on possible comments. Reason: Other things in life got more interesting and important for me. I had no worries back then

When the historical articles thread was started I remembered I still had this somewhere and figured I'd post it here for public entertainment

I still think this is good though.
But please forgive my English at some places, I apparently had some problems here and there (and I found one sentence which makes absolutely no sense), and despite the fact that I have excellent marks in school, English simply isn't my native tongue.

 

[Stefan Haertel]

Actually, I've found several cryptic sentences by now. Sorry.

 

[Knight-Dragon]

Good one, Stefan , though it's quite a bit longer than I'd expected...

I'll read it when I've time... someday...

 

[Xen]

wow. big. very, very big. like the others, I'll have to read it later (I like reading paper better then staring at a screen, so I'll print it later and read it, if I have time

 

[Knight-Dragon]

I wish the formatting will be easier to read though...

 

[Stefan Haertel]

Sorry, I cut and pasted it, and didn't have the time to edit it.

 

[Xen]

Actually, There is a story about why Cambyrses killed good 'ol Apis the Bull

it goes that on the day he enterd memphis, instead of lamenting their loss at the hand of the hated persian dog people, scum of the earth, entering egypt as filthy barbarian knugguts (from the Egyptians point of veiw, of coarse I also made up a word, just cause it seemed to fit)

They were celibrating, when he asked, he was told that a living god had been born that day, he asked to see this "living god", once he saw that it was a "simple calf" he killed it, and ate, installing foever the notouriuos Egyptian hatred of Persia

 

[willemvanoranje]

damn, I could've used this 6 months ago for history

 

[Stefan Haertel]

Yes, but one thing must be considered:
The story of Cambyses in Egypt was told by Herodotus, who heard these things from Egyptian priests, who, as you said correctly, had some hatred for the Persians.
Now, people with glowing hatred aren't exactly trustworthy, are they?
Ghirshman tried to explain this with an epilleptic fit. I don't know what kinds of things people do when they have epilleptic fits, but I personally doubt that stabbing bulls is one of them...

 

[willemvanoranje]

you know the story about the skulls too then?