wildWolverine
L'Etat, c'est moi
Alexander of Macedon and William of Normandy
The name of Alexander betokens the end of one world epoch, and the beginning of another. John Gustav Droysen aptly describes the deeds of Alexander the Great in this one simple statement. Throughout the long history of mankind, there have been many empires and more rulers, spanning from the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia to the Third Reich. Many of these short-lived empires had little significant impact on civilization as a whole, regardless of their geographic size. Every few centuries, however, great men take the helm of their countries and have a tremendous impact on the course of the world. William of Normandy and Alexander of Macedon, though separated by more than a millennium, were two similar men who utilized the resources available to them coupled with their military and administrative geniuses to make their indelible marks in history.
Although they led similar adult lives, the two men experienced remarkably different childhoods. Alexander lived in a divisive household amongst circulating rumors about his mother Olympias involvement with snakes. Philips constant mistresses also caused much dissension in the royal house of Macedonia. However, Alexander was still treated as a royal prince. As a young child, he was tended by a nurse, and enjoyed the company of several friends, including his lifelong lover Hephaestion. Alexander was trained physically and taught the art of war by Leonidas, while he expanded his mental capacities by being schooled by several royal tutors. Later, Alexander studied philosophy under Aristotle. Alexander was twenty years old when Philip was assassinated, and already had experience leading men in battle and administering a government.
William, however, was not as fortunate. He was the son of Robert the Magnificent, sixth Duke of Normandy. His mother, Arlette, was a commoner from Falaise: Roberts mistress, and William became known as William the Bastard. Although Robert was a relatively strong duke (he managed to keep the rebellious Norman barons loyal during his rule), he made a politically fatal error in 1034, when William was only seven years old, by leaving his realm in an unstable state. After declaring William as Roberts heir and appointing several guardians, a regent, and a seneschal for his son, Robert left Normandy on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During the voyage, Robert contracted a fever and died. When this news arrived back in Normandy, the power-hungry barons used Williams illegitimacy and youthfulness as excuses to justify revolting. They murdered the men Robert had appointed to rule the country for his young son, and hunted William himself. At age eight, William was introduced into a world of violence and fear. He managed to survive their plots, gaining much military cunning and prowess in the process. With his loyal supporters, he managed to subdue the barons. He fought them from 1040 to 1047, finally defeating them with help from the king of France. Although their journeys were very different, the end result was the same. At age twenty, both men were cunning warriors and proven leaders.
Both men were forced to overcome formidable obstacles to secure their respective thrones. Alexanders right to succeed Philip was contested for several reasons and by several people. He was not a pure Macedonian, inheriting partial barbarian blood from his parents. Also, twenty years earlier, Philip had declared himself king, pushing aside the rightful heir, the infant Aymntas, son of Perdiccas. Upon Philips death, Aymntas, now an adult, renewed his claim to the Macedonian crown. Several other politically connected men also claimed the throne. Alexander, however, gained the support of the generals Antipater and Parmenio, and in turn, that of the Macedonian army. This gave Alexander the power to eliminate his rivals, by either murdering or imprisoning them. After solidifying his power base in Macedonia, Alexander immediately made a show of force in Greece to ensure their submission, and led several small campaigns in Thrace and Illyria to put down revolting chieftains. Thebes rebelled against his rule; Alexander defeated them and destroyed the city completely, selling the inhabitants into slavery. This vicious action cowed the rest of the Greek poleis. His power finally consolidated at home, Alexander was able to leave for his invasion of Persia.
William also had to fight for his throne. After finally defeating the barons following seven years of war and gaining complete control over the duchy, William fought several small battles with neighboring territories to discourage them from infringing on Norman territory. He married Matilda, a royal princess, in a political marriage, further solidifying his rule. William constructed a solid, stable government. It was stable enough to prevent any problems from arising while he was away in England a rare feat in such turbulent times. Alexander and William were wise enough to realize that they had to leave their homelands in utter stability before they could travel abroad on their campaigns. They both accomplished this through military force and deft political maneuvering.
William and Alexander both possessed the intangible quality had by all great generals: to be able to plan brilliant attacks and improvise in the face of unexpected adversity. Both men were aided in their achievements by great armies. The Macedonian warriors gained skills and endurance while fighting various enemies under Philip. The officers accrued tremendous knowledge on campaigning and laying sieges. William honed his own skills while putting down the rebellious barons, and his soldiers gained great prowess. These events resulted in the two leaders having relatively small but superbly trained and disciplined armies.
They also utilized new techniques and weapons technology to their advantage. Alexanders men used sarissas, new pikes over twelve feet long. They fought in the new, modified phalanx, much more mobile than those of old. William used mounted armored cavalry as the backbone of his army a new concept in a time when most battles were fought by foot soldiers. These crack armies with new weapons, coupled with the genius of their respective leaders, allowed them to overcome numerically stronger foes.
Although England is much smaller geographically than the territories conquered by Alexander, because politics had changed very much in the 1200 year interim, both feats were very significant. Military campaigns were the focus of both William and Alexanders reigns. The biggest campaigns of their respective reigns were started for different reasons, but ultimately resulted in the same outcome. The official reason for Alexanders initial campaigns was retaliation for the indignities inflicted upon the Greeks in the great Persian wars over a century and a half earlier. Later, as he moved further eastward, Alexander justified continuing the war by saying that conquering the entire world was necessary to safeguard what his armies had already won: Alexander wanted to create one giant empire. William publicized his invasion as a means of securing what rightly belonged to him the throne of England. His claim was based on a promise made years previously by Edward the Confessor. William invaded the isle to supplant the supposed usurper Harold Godwin. Regardless of their motives, either public or private, the two men achieved great military conquests.
Both leaders were master manipulators of men; they used this skill to help them achieve their conquests. William drew upon the vast numbers of Norman warriors, attracting men to fight for him by offering good pay and promising a good fight, glory, and loot. He obtained Papal approval for his mission by portraying Harold as an usurper. Alexander used similar methods, as well as utilizing unexpected natural events to his advantage. Prior to the battle of Gaugamela, a solar eclipse darkened the field. Alexander had his seers proclaim this as a good omen, thus increasing the morale of his vastly outnumbered army. When Bessus murdered Darius, Alexander used the opportunity to paint Bessus as a traitor. Alexander manipulated the Persians into supporting him by depicting himself as Darius avenger. Both men used their cunning to manipulate men and countries to help further their causes.
A combination of luck and great leadership allowed William and Alexander to win battles against seemingly insurmountable odds. Contrary winds prevented William from sailing, delaying his invasion in 1066. Because of this, Harald Haardrada of Norway, another contender for the English throne, landed first. Harold Godwin fought and soundly defeated Haardrada, but lost many men in the process. When the winds finally changed and William landed England, he faced a much smaller and weakened English force at Hastings: the power of southern England rather than the strength of a national force. Historians predict that William would have been unprepared to fight Harolds full army William was granted a stroke of luck by the caprices of the wind. However, it was still a formidable English army, and Williams leadership was sorely needed. His carefully orchestrated mock retreats during the battle led to large massacres of the inexperienced and over-eager Saxon militia, paving the way for a Norman victory. Alexander was fortunate enough to face a poor military leader: Darius. Alexander crossed the Hellespont unchallenged, and managed to defeat the poorly organized Persian troops in a series of great battles, culminating at Gaugamela. Later, Alexander captured the impregnable Sogdian Rock without a siege a combination of luck and cunning. Perhaps Alexander and William were not so much lucky as that they made their luck, an extension of their great leadership.
Alexander and William used different methods for administering their respective conquests. The completion of the Battle of Hastings signified the end of national resistance to the Normans; Norman forces easily put down the various regional uprisings over the next several years, and William was crowned King of England on Christmas day, 1066. Although he wished to rule with mostly English laws and customs, William had to ensure loyalty. Therefore, he killed or exiled all of the Saxon nobility, and installed Normans in their place. Learning of the power of the church from the example of the Visigoths converting to Christianity after sacking Rome, William installed Normans into all positions of power in the English church. Alexander faced a much different situation. While he had defeated Darius, there were still many times more Persians than Macedonians; he could not rule by force. Instead, Alexander used political machinations to bring the Persians to support him. He kept many Persian laws and customs. In the eastern satrapies, Alexander even left Persians as satraps, albeit with Macedonians in charge of the military garrisons. He also incorporated Persians into his army. Alexanders actions greatly accelerated the process of blending and solidifying his precarious rule. The same process occurred in England under William and his successors, but at a much slower pace. For all the initial difficulties between the Norman overlords and the Saxon subjects, they eventually became one population: in 1215, the Magna Carta did not mention Normans and English separately, it spoke merely of the English people. Through different routes, both men obtained the same result.
The actions of Alexander and William had far reaching repercussions that were still felt centuries after their deaths. Although Alexanders empire dissolved almost immediately after his death, Macedonian/Greeks ruled all the resultant kingdoms. This allowed the further trade and exchange of knowledge between the East and West. Alexander had created the Hellenistic world, and ended the era of individual, isolated kingdoms and little empires. He effectively prepared southeastern Europe and Asia for Roman conquest several centuries later. In the eleventh century, many European countries were in a state of decline. Kingdoms were breaking up, and there was much internal strife. After conquering England, William equipped her with a strong, efficient, centralized government. England became a world power for the first time, and remained so through the twentieth century. He commissioned the creation of the Domesday Book, the first of its kind. It catalogued every property in England fairly accurately, and set up an efficient tax plan. The invasion and subsequent blending of cultures had other effects also. The English language has one of the most confusing and illogical sets of grammar in the world. As the Norman conquerors blended with their Saxon subjects, their two languages, French and Old English, merged to form the new hybrid language: the same spoken today. It is doubtful that either man foresaw how large an impact that they would have on the world.
William and Alexander belong to the elite company of men and women who helped shape the history of the world. Ambitious men, they both used all their skills and talents to mold the world to fit an inner vision that they had. It is impossible to predict what the state of the world would be had these two men not been born and achieved their remarkable feats.
The name of Alexander betokens the end of one world epoch, and the beginning of another. John Gustav Droysen aptly describes the deeds of Alexander the Great in this one simple statement. Throughout the long history of mankind, there have been many empires and more rulers, spanning from the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia to the Third Reich. Many of these short-lived empires had little significant impact on civilization as a whole, regardless of their geographic size. Every few centuries, however, great men take the helm of their countries and have a tremendous impact on the course of the world. William of Normandy and Alexander of Macedon, though separated by more than a millennium, were two similar men who utilized the resources available to them coupled with their military and administrative geniuses to make their indelible marks in history.
Although they led similar adult lives, the two men experienced remarkably different childhoods. Alexander lived in a divisive household amongst circulating rumors about his mother Olympias involvement with snakes. Philips constant mistresses also caused much dissension in the royal house of Macedonia. However, Alexander was still treated as a royal prince. As a young child, he was tended by a nurse, and enjoyed the company of several friends, including his lifelong lover Hephaestion. Alexander was trained physically and taught the art of war by Leonidas, while he expanded his mental capacities by being schooled by several royal tutors. Later, Alexander studied philosophy under Aristotle. Alexander was twenty years old when Philip was assassinated, and already had experience leading men in battle and administering a government.
William, however, was not as fortunate. He was the son of Robert the Magnificent, sixth Duke of Normandy. His mother, Arlette, was a commoner from Falaise: Roberts mistress, and William became known as William the Bastard. Although Robert was a relatively strong duke (he managed to keep the rebellious Norman barons loyal during his rule), he made a politically fatal error in 1034, when William was only seven years old, by leaving his realm in an unstable state. After declaring William as Roberts heir and appointing several guardians, a regent, and a seneschal for his son, Robert left Normandy on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During the voyage, Robert contracted a fever and died. When this news arrived back in Normandy, the power-hungry barons used Williams illegitimacy and youthfulness as excuses to justify revolting. They murdered the men Robert had appointed to rule the country for his young son, and hunted William himself. At age eight, William was introduced into a world of violence and fear. He managed to survive their plots, gaining much military cunning and prowess in the process. With his loyal supporters, he managed to subdue the barons. He fought them from 1040 to 1047, finally defeating them with help from the king of France. Although their journeys were very different, the end result was the same. At age twenty, both men were cunning warriors and proven leaders.
Both men were forced to overcome formidable obstacles to secure their respective thrones. Alexanders right to succeed Philip was contested for several reasons and by several people. He was not a pure Macedonian, inheriting partial barbarian blood from his parents. Also, twenty years earlier, Philip had declared himself king, pushing aside the rightful heir, the infant Aymntas, son of Perdiccas. Upon Philips death, Aymntas, now an adult, renewed his claim to the Macedonian crown. Several other politically connected men also claimed the throne. Alexander, however, gained the support of the generals Antipater and Parmenio, and in turn, that of the Macedonian army. This gave Alexander the power to eliminate his rivals, by either murdering or imprisoning them. After solidifying his power base in Macedonia, Alexander immediately made a show of force in Greece to ensure their submission, and led several small campaigns in Thrace and Illyria to put down revolting chieftains. Thebes rebelled against his rule; Alexander defeated them and destroyed the city completely, selling the inhabitants into slavery. This vicious action cowed the rest of the Greek poleis. His power finally consolidated at home, Alexander was able to leave for his invasion of Persia.
William also had to fight for his throne. After finally defeating the barons following seven years of war and gaining complete control over the duchy, William fought several small battles with neighboring territories to discourage them from infringing on Norman territory. He married Matilda, a royal princess, in a political marriage, further solidifying his rule. William constructed a solid, stable government. It was stable enough to prevent any problems from arising while he was away in England a rare feat in such turbulent times. Alexander and William were wise enough to realize that they had to leave their homelands in utter stability before they could travel abroad on their campaigns. They both accomplished this through military force and deft political maneuvering.
William and Alexander both possessed the intangible quality had by all great generals: to be able to plan brilliant attacks and improvise in the face of unexpected adversity. Both men were aided in their achievements by great armies. The Macedonian warriors gained skills and endurance while fighting various enemies under Philip. The officers accrued tremendous knowledge on campaigning and laying sieges. William honed his own skills while putting down the rebellious barons, and his soldiers gained great prowess. These events resulted in the two leaders having relatively small but superbly trained and disciplined armies.
They also utilized new techniques and weapons technology to their advantage. Alexanders men used sarissas, new pikes over twelve feet long. They fought in the new, modified phalanx, much more mobile than those of old. William used mounted armored cavalry as the backbone of his army a new concept in a time when most battles were fought by foot soldiers. These crack armies with new weapons, coupled with the genius of their respective leaders, allowed them to overcome numerically stronger foes.
Although England is much smaller geographically than the territories conquered by Alexander, because politics had changed very much in the 1200 year interim, both feats were very significant. Military campaigns were the focus of both William and Alexanders reigns. The biggest campaigns of their respective reigns were started for different reasons, but ultimately resulted in the same outcome. The official reason for Alexanders initial campaigns was retaliation for the indignities inflicted upon the Greeks in the great Persian wars over a century and a half earlier. Later, as he moved further eastward, Alexander justified continuing the war by saying that conquering the entire world was necessary to safeguard what his armies had already won: Alexander wanted to create one giant empire. William publicized his invasion as a means of securing what rightly belonged to him the throne of England. His claim was based on a promise made years previously by Edward the Confessor. William invaded the isle to supplant the supposed usurper Harold Godwin. Regardless of their motives, either public or private, the two men achieved great military conquests.
Both leaders were master manipulators of men; they used this skill to help them achieve their conquests. William drew upon the vast numbers of Norman warriors, attracting men to fight for him by offering good pay and promising a good fight, glory, and loot. He obtained Papal approval for his mission by portraying Harold as an usurper. Alexander used similar methods, as well as utilizing unexpected natural events to his advantage. Prior to the battle of Gaugamela, a solar eclipse darkened the field. Alexander had his seers proclaim this as a good omen, thus increasing the morale of his vastly outnumbered army. When Bessus murdered Darius, Alexander used the opportunity to paint Bessus as a traitor. Alexander manipulated the Persians into supporting him by depicting himself as Darius avenger. Both men used their cunning to manipulate men and countries to help further their causes.
A combination of luck and great leadership allowed William and Alexander to win battles against seemingly insurmountable odds. Contrary winds prevented William from sailing, delaying his invasion in 1066. Because of this, Harald Haardrada of Norway, another contender for the English throne, landed first. Harold Godwin fought and soundly defeated Haardrada, but lost many men in the process. When the winds finally changed and William landed England, he faced a much smaller and weakened English force at Hastings: the power of southern England rather than the strength of a national force. Historians predict that William would have been unprepared to fight Harolds full army William was granted a stroke of luck by the caprices of the wind. However, it was still a formidable English army, and Williams leadership was sorely needed. His carefully orchestrated mock retreats during the battle led to large massacres of the inexperienced and over-eager Saxon militia, paving the way for a Norman victory. Alexander was fortunate enough to face a poor military leader: Darius. Alexander crossed the Hellespont unchallenged, and managed to defeat the poorly organized Persian troops in a series of great battles, culminating at Gaugamela. Later, Alexander captured the impregnable Sogdian Rock without a siege a combination of luck and cunning. Perhaps Alexander and William were not so much lucky as that they made their luck, an extension of their great leadership.
Alexander and William used different methods for administering their respective conquests. The completion of the Battle of Hastings signified the end of national resistance to the Normans; Norman forces easily put down the various regional uprisings over the next several years, and William was crowned King of England on Christmas day, 1066. Although he wished to rule with mostly English laws and customs, William had to ensure loyalty. Therefore, he killed or exiled all of the Saxon nobility, and installed Normans in their place. Learning of the power of the church from the example of the Visigoths converting to Christianity after sacking Rome, William installed Normans into all positions of power in the English church. Alexander faced a much different situation. While he had defeated Darius, there were still many times more Persians than Macedonians; he could not rule by force. Instead, Alexander used political machinations to bring the Persians to support him. He kept many Persian laws and customs. In the eastern satrapies, Alexander even left Persians as satraps, albeit with Macedonians in charge of the military garrisons. He also incorporated Persians into his army. Alexanders actions greatly accelerated the process of blending and solidifying his precarious rule. The same process occurred in England under William and his successors, but at a much slower pace. For all the initial difficulties between the Norman overlords and the Saxon subjects, they eventually became one population: in 1215, the Magna Carta did not mention Normans and English separately, it spoke merely of the English people. Through different routes, both men obtained the same result.
The actions of Alexander and William had far reaching repercussions that were still felt centuries after their deaths. Although Alexanders empire dissolved almost immediately after his death, Macedonian/Greeks ruled all the resultant kingdoms. This allowed the further trade and exchange of knowledge between the East and West. Alexander had created the Hellenistic world, and ended the era of individual, isolated kingdoms and little empires. He effectively prepared southeastern Europe and Asia for Roman conquest several centuries later. In the eleventh century, many European countries were in a state of decline. Kingdoms were breaking up, and there was much internal strife. After conquering England, William equipped her with a strong, efficient, centralized government. England became a world power for the first time, and remained so through the twentieth century. He commissioned the creation of the Domesday Book, the first of its kind. It catalogued every property in England fairly accurately, and set up an efficient tax plan. The invasion and subsequent blending of cultures had other effects also. The English language has one of the most confusing and illogical sets of grammar in the world. As the Norman conquerors blended with their Saxon subjects, their two languages, French and Old English, merged to form the new hybrid language: the same spoken today. It is doubtful that either man foresaw how large an impact that they would have on the world.
William and Alexander belong to the elite company of men and women who helped shape the history of the world. Ambitious men, they both used all their skills and talents to mold the world to fit an inner vision that they had. It is impossible to predict what the state of the world would be had these two men not been born and achieved their remarkable feats.
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