Stefan Haertel
Title
The New Number Two
Mahmud of Ghazna
By Stefan Härtel
The sands of time are not kind to everyone. In some countries, they may be able to conserve secrets and mysteries in a way that later generations of explorers and historians can uncover them, not without pleasure. But sometimes they are cruel. They seem to enjoy playing with their victims, gnawing on the remnants of past ages and gradually destroying them, making the few surviving records of the ages of their origins seem like fantasies or lies.
The town of Ghazni in Afghanistan is a victim of these powers. It does not seem very fair that a few towers and ruins of decaying stone are everything visual that is left of the great glory the town once had.
Ghazni was the capital of the first Turkish empire to speak of in the Middle East. There had been Turkish empires before in Central Asia and the Caspian territory, but none of them had great cultural or political impact in Iran. Nevertheless, the Turks had established their presence whithin four centuries so that the Islamic rulers could not disregard their political impact anymore. From the mid-9th century on, many became mercenaries to the Abassids, who controlled this territory at that time. The Samanids, an emirate which would become the leading Persian power and the one to keep the flame of Persian culture alight after the decay of Abassid power, would follow this example and extend it; in the 10th century, they gave the Turk mercenary Alptegin full command of the most important fraction of their army. This did not, however, mean that he had all the power he wished for, and the Samanids would not accept his candidate for the succession to his office. In effect, he took refuge to the border region of Ghazna (now Ghazni) in 961. One of his successors, Sebuktegin, also a Turkish mercenary, founded an independent principality which his son Mahmud would turn into an empire.
Mahmud (998-1030) managed to overthrow the local powers, most importantly the Samanids, with diplomatic and military methods. His goal was to create a big Turkish empire, centred in Ghazna, which would become the leading Islamic power and destroy all non-Sunnite states that had come into existance. Being a Turk, he had no religious legitimation to do this, but, being an orthodox Sunnite, he felt he needed it. Therefore, he tried to get the Caliph's blessing by claiming to have overthrown the Samanids because they did not accept his authority. By constantly sending him gifts, Mahmud tried to let the Caliph know that he did accept his authority, and finally, in 1014, the Caliph accepted Mahmud as sovereign of the eastern part of the Islamic world, and therefore as second only to himself. This encouraged Mahmud to lead the fight against the Shi'ite world. The Shi'a had been widely accepted at that time, and Ghazna was literally surrounded by Shi'ites. Mahmud first turned his eyes towards Multan, a Shi'ite sultanate in Punjab. But conquering Multan was not enough for Mahmud, and he found it legitime to expand further into India in order to spread Islam there. He continued his father's policy of leading frequent campaigns into India and increased their radicality. His raid on the Hindu temple in Somnath (1026), parts of which were used to build palaces in Ghazna, has become legendary, and he could successfully expand his powers up to Delhi, creating the base for an Islamic India. To the west, Mahmud could extend Turkish power up to the Iranian cities of Ray and Hamadan. His desperate fight against the Shi'ite Buyids, who were centred around Shiraz in Fars, however, was unsuccessful, as was his dream to remove the Fatimids from Egypt.
Mahmud was also unable to create a stable empire which would stand the test of time. As with so many rulers, his empire was founded on the charisma of the leader, and when he passed away in 1030, it crumbled. The Ghaznavids, as the lords of this empire were known as, had to accept Seldjuk sovereignity under Bahram Shah (1117-1152), and the city of Ghazna fell to the Ghorids in 1161. The Ghaznavids were reduced to Panjab, but were finally destroyed by the Ghorids when they took their new capital of Lahore in 1186.
But Mahmud was not only an able and charismatic general. The more important aspect of his, and the one that survived even when the traces of his once so glorious empire had all vanished. He was a lover of the arts, and at his court, the Persian culture became a leading light of Islam. It was his goal to assemble all the great thinkers, scientists, poets and artists of his age at Ghazna to make it not only the political and military, but also the cultural capital of the eastern Islamic world. Of course, there was also a hint of politics in this aim; he obviously attempted to downgrade the importance of cities such as Bokhara or Samarqand, which were outside of his control.
The ever so rare literary life of Persia flourished at his court, but Mahmud was careful to keep control over what would be written and published; he despised Persian literature which was mostly Shi'ite-influenced. Theology was totally unwanted, and almost all of the literature written in Ghazna was odes to Mahmud.
Ironically, Mahmud paid no respect to either the greatest poet of his times, nor his greatest work: Despite being dedicated to Mahmud, Firdowsi's Shahnameh, the modernization of an ancient Persian epic, and perhaps the greatest piece of Persian literature ever written, was nearly unregarded by the Sultan, and subsequent complaints forced Firdowsi to leave the country, to be pardoned a couple of years afterwards.
Mahmud himself was also a keen writer and thinker, and during his campaigns in India, he learned Sanskrit and studied Indian religious and scientific literature. This lead him to write two books in 1000 and 1017 respectively, which proved to be invaluable for later historians.
In order to represent his power, he also ordered splendid palaces to be built in his two capital, Ghazna, and al-Askar, the latter being his winter capital. Very little of these palaces is left now, and some parts have been carried away by the British, who wished to return them to Somnath.
Despite his efforts to increase cultural and scientific life, Mahmud himself is mostly remembered for being a warrior and conqueror, especially in India, where his brutal and merciless policy toward he Hindus would not be forgotten.
Sources:
Brockelmann, C.: Geschichte der islamischen Völker und Staaten, München/Berlin, 1943
Hattstein, M., Delius, P. (publishers): Islam, Kunst und Architektur, published by , Cologne, 2000
Cahen, C.: Der Islam I, Vom Ursprung bis zu den Anfängen des Osmanenreiches, Frankfurt, 1968
Mahmud of Ghazna
By Stefan Härtel
The sands of time are not kind to everyone. In some countries, they may be able to conserve secrets and mysteries in a way that later generations of explorers and historians can uncover them, not without pleasure. But sometimes they are cruel. They seem to enjoy playing with their victims, gnawing on the remnants of past ages and gradually destroying them, making the few surviving records of the ages of their origins seem like fantasies or lies.
The town of Ghazni in Afghanistan is a victim of these powers. It does not seem very fair that a few towers and ruins of decaying stone are everything visual that is left of the great glory the town once had.
Ghazni was the capital of the first Turkish empire to speak of in the Middle East. There had been Turkish empires before in Central Asia and the Caspian territory, but none of them had great cultural or political impact in Iran. Nevertheless, the Turks had established their presence whithin four centuries so that the Islamic rulers could not disregard their political impact anymore. From the mid-9th century on, many became mercenaries to the Abassids, who controlled this territory at that time. The Samanids, an emirate which would become the leading Persian power and the one to keep the flame of Persian culture alight after the decay of Abassid power, would follow this example and extend it; in the 10th century, they gave the Turk mercenary Alptegin full command of the most important fraction of their army. This did not, however, mean that he had all the power he wished for, and the Samanids would not accept his candidate for the succession to his office. In effect, he took refuge to the border region of Ghazna (now Ghazni) in 961. One of his successors, Sebuktegin, also a Turkish mercenary, founded an independent principality which his son Mahmud would turn into an empire.
Mahmud (998-1030) managed to overthrow the local powers, most importantly the Samanids, with diplomatic and military methods. His goal was to create a big Turkish empire, centred in Ghazna, which would become the leading Islamic power and destroy all non-Sunnite states that had come into existance. Being a Turk, he had no religious legitimation to do this, but, being an orthodox Sunnite, he felt he needed it. Therefore, he tried to get the Caliph's blessing by claiming to have overthrown the Samanids because they did not accept his authority. By constantly sending him gifts, Mahmud tried to let the Caliph know that he did accept his authority, and finally, in 1014, the Caliph accepted Mahmud as sovereign of the eastern part of the Islamic world, and therefore as second only to himself. This encouraged Mahmud to lead the fight against the Shi'ite world. The Shi'a had been widely accepted at that time, and Ghazna was literally surrounded by Shi'ites. Mahmud first turned his eyes towards Multan, a Shi'ite sultanate in Punjab. But conquering Multan was not enough for Mahmud, and he found it legitime to expand further into India in order to spread Islam there. He continued his father's policy of leading frequent campaigns into India and increased their radicality. His raid on the Hindu temple in Somnath (1026), parts of which were used to build palaces in Ghazna, has become legendary, and he could successfully expand his powers up to Delhi, creating the base for an Islamic India. To the west, Mahmud could extend Turkish power up to the Iranian cities of Ray and Hamadan. His desperate fight against the Shi'ite Buyids, who were centred around Shiraz in Fars, however, was unsuccessful, as was his dream to remove the Fatimids from Egypt.
Mahmud was also unable to create a stable empire which would stand the test of time. As with so many rulers, his empire was founded on the charisma of the leader, and when he passed away in 1030, it crumbled. The Ghaznavids, as the lords of this empire were known as, had to accept Seldjuk sovereignity under Bahram Shah (1117-1152), and the city of Ghazna fell to the Ghorids in 1161. The Ghaznavids were reduced to Panjab, but were finally destroyed by the Ghorids when they took their new capital of Lahore in 1186.
But Mahmud was not only an able and charismatic general. The more important aspect of his, and the one that survived even when the traces of his once so glorious empire had all vanished. He was a lover of the arts, and at his court, the Persian culture became a leading light of Islam. It was his goal to assemble all the great thinkers, scientists, poets and artists of his age at Ghazna to make it not only the political and military, but also the cultural capital of the eastern Islamic world. Of course, there was also a hint of politics in this aim; he obviously attempted to downgrade the importance of cities such as Bokhara or Samarqand, which were outside of his control.
The ever so rare literary life of Persia flourished at his court, but Mahmud was careful to keep control over what would be written and published; he despised Persian literature which was mostly Shi'ite-influenced. Theology was totally unwanted, and almost all of the literature written in Ghazna was odes to Mahmud.
Ironically, Mahmud paid no respect to either the greatest poet of his times, nor his greatest work: Despite being dedicated to Mahmud, Firdowsi's Shahnameh, the modernization of an ancient Persian epic, and perhaps the greatest piece of Persian literature ever written, was nearly unregarded by the Sultan, and subsequent complaints forced Firdowsi to leave the country, to be pardoned a couple of years afterwards.
Mahmud himself was also a keen writer and thinker, and during his campaigns in India, he learned Sanskrit and studied Indian religious and scientific literature. This lead him to write two books in 1000 and 1017 respectively, which proved to be invaluable for later historians.
In order to represent his power, he also ordered splendid palaces to be built in his two capital, Ghazna, and al-Askar, the latter being his winter capital. Very little of these palaces is left now, and some parts have been carried away by the British, who wished to return them to Somnath.
Despite his efforts to increase cultural and scientific life, Mahmud himself is mostly remembered for being a warrior and conqueror, especially in India, where his brutal and merciless policy toward he Hindus would not be forgotten.
Sources:
Brockelmann, C.: Geschichte der islamischen Völker und Staaten, München/Berlin, 1943
Hattstein, M., Delius, P. (publishers): Islam, Kunst und Architektur, published by , Cologne, 2000
Cahen, C.: Der Islam I, Vom Ursprung bis zu den Anfängen des Osmanenreiches, Frankfurt, 1968
