Miscellaneous Civilopedia Entries!

[Simon_Jester]

HAWILT

The Axumite period of ancient Ethiopian history is famous for the creation of the hawilt, or stelae. Probably adapted from earlier Egyptian monumental architecture, the Axumites refined the stele (a type of obelisk) to extraordinary heights- both literally and metaphorically. Stele served as the primary form of marker for the tombs of the aristocracy, among other roles. The Axumites developed a variety of sophisticated methods for transporting and erecting massive obelisks, though even they sometimes had accidents; the largest Axumite stele would have been thirty-three meters high had it not fallen and shattered.

IYA

"Iya" is the local term for the defensive fortifications of the city of Benin, capital of the kingdom of the same name. Rather than a single ring wall of stone around the city center, the city defended itself with a prodigious network of earthworks surrounding a zone of 6500 square kilometers, with multiple interlocking layers of moat-and-rampart defenses. The scale of these fortifications made them the largest earthwork in human history up to and into modern times, and was remarked on by a variety of European travelers visiting the city across a period of centuries.

KALARI

The kalari, or "threshing floor," is a traditional training ground for Keralan martial arts. The layout is governed by a mix of practicality and religious symbolism. Kalari can serve instructional purposes, both for martial artists and for others; village schools were often known by this name until recently. They can also act as a proving-ground for duels within the community.

KIRU
[Sorry I got nothing. ]

KIVA

A kiva is a subterranean chamber used for meetings and religious ceremonies by the Pueblo tribe of Native Americans, with similar structures being common among a number of other ancient native cultures in the region as evidenced by the remains of their settlements.

Sheltered from the harsh elements of the Southwestern desert climate, the kiva made a more salubrious place for people to engage in social and cultural activities than the hot, arid outdoors. Any substantial dwelling or group of dwellings was likely to have a kiva, and large communities tended to construct standalone 'great kivas' of various types, representing an early form of public architecture.

PAYA
[Can't find an easy source for saying anything interesting]

PUBLIC HOUSE

A public house or 'pub' is a commercial establishment selling alcoholic beverages, of a type commonly found in the English-descended cultures of the British Isles and various overseas colonies of the former British Empire. For centuries, pubs have been a centerpiece of community life for the British, such that in the 17th century, famed diarist Samuel Pepys described the pub as "the heart of England."

The pub can be viewed as a descendant of Roman taverns, roadside inns for the refreshment of travelers. Since trade and traffic followed the Roman roads, many of these taverns became centerpieces for small villages that similarly persisted even after the Empire no longer existed to provide stability and safety on the roads.

Convergent evolution came into play with the Anglo-Saxon institution of the 'alehouse,' typically the domestic residence of the village's brewer, often a woman referred to as an 'alewife.' Alehouses were very common and popular in English communities up to and through the Norman conquests, and tended to mingle and merge with the travelers' inns, which saw reduced traffic during the Dark Ages in England.

As the preferred location for social drinking, the public houses of various types (including inns which rented rooms, and alehouses which did not) also became centers for gossip, commerce, and arrangement of mutual assistance within communities, as well as common stopping points for travelers. Over time the precise role of the public house evolved, with new beverages and other luxuries being introduced as distilled liquors and foreign products such as tea were introduced to the British Isles, but the underlying role of the village pub persisted well into modern times, as did their larger city cousins.

 

[Simon_Jester]

RATHAUS

'Rathaus' is the German word for the center of local municipal government.

The German people's modern reputation for orderliness and meticulous compliance with law and regulation began to unfold in the 18th century and on, particularly with the evolution of Prussia into a regimented garrison state under Frederick I and his son Frederick the Great. This had major implications for security, and for the mobilization of the German armies. With detailed, precise records and the ability to depend upon both troops and transportation assets to be punctual, supplied according to regulation an ready on command, the Germans were able to drill and field exceptionally disciplined and precisely handled armies. This, as much as any other single factor, served to reinforce the Prussian and later German reputation for the art of war.

RESTAURANT

A restaurant is a commercial eatery which centers around the preparation and serving of food, rather than of alcoholic beverages or providing lodging to travelers.

The French nation prides itself on high cuisine. Many of the world's most prestigious culinary institutions teach the fine art of cooking within France's borders, and the French language is often used to provide technical vocabulary for cooking even in other languages. As a result of this and other trends, France has a comparatively active and vibrant sector of restaurants and cafes.

SEJMIK

A sejmik was a Polish local legislature.

Governance among the Poles, or at least the aristocracy, during their golden age was relatively loose and democratic. Poles of sufficient status would meet in great numbers at the sejmik to discuss local events, and elect representatives to the national assembly or Sejm. This low-level democracy among the aristocrats strengthened the internal unity of the Polish nation, though it could sometimes contribute to that nation's general reputation for unruliness and disorder.

SOUQ

A souq is a type of open-air marketplace common in cities influenced by Islamic customs, though it predates the rise of Islam. Known in Persian-influenced regions as a bazaar, the souq provides a location for large numbers of vendors to gather. Like the marketplaces of other cities. Indeed, the word 'souq' has cross-pollinated into many languages from the original Arabic, and in Arabic itself is used colloquially in many of the same ways the word 'market' is used in English.

Active commerce in open-air souqs is a cornerstone of society throughout much of the Middle East.

 

[Simon_Jester]

TAMBO

The Inca Empire maintained an astoundingly efficient network of foot messengers, couriers, and postal delivery agents to hold together its sprawling mountain territory by way of the Inca road network. The tambo structures along the roads were part of the network. They also served as administrative and logistical centers. A tambo might contain storehouses for goods, barracks for conscript labor and housing for travelers, and repositories of 'written' records using the famed Inca quipu system. Some of the most elaborate tambo were effectively cities in their own right, with palatial quarters to house the Inca emperor himself, and with in-house craftsmen who produced goods like textiles and pottery for the benefit of the Empire's government.

ZIARA
[I got nothing you haven't already said]

 

[Xyth]

Thanks so much for all of these Simon. Unfortunately I've had no time to devote to HR this past couple of months, but I will do again come October. I hope to get the 2nd (and final) beta out as quickly as possible that month and these pedia entries will be the first thing I incorporate.

 

[Simon_Jester]

FALCON DANCER

The falcon was a bird with prominent symbolic importance throughout the region occupied by what is now referred to as 'Mississippian' civilization. The falcon was an avatar and patron of warriors, and a target of prayers for long life, health, and a long line of descendants.

[I've got nothing else that isn't in your entry]

FLAMETHROWER

A flamethrower is an implement for projecting flames at a distance, generally by means of a stream of burning liquid.

The earliest known flamethrowers were developed by the Greeks during the Roman era, around the first century CE. The technology was gradually refined with greater mechanical sophistication, but did not fully come into its own in the Eastern Roman Empire until the Byzantine era. It was particularly effective when combined with 'Greek fire,' a sticky incendiary liquid first attested in Byzantine hands in the year 673 CE, as a development of earlier, less potent incendiaries.

Greek fire clung to its targets, and could not be permanently extinguished by water. This made it extremely effective as a weapon against wooden ships, where the Byzantines used it extensively, projecting it from pumps or 'siphons' against the fleets of their enemies. Flamethrowers using Greek fire were used against the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate during their two sieges of Constantinople, with great success, playing a key role in the breaking of both sieges.

Handheld flamethrowers were used by the Byzantines into and during the 10th century CE, again using Greek fire or other incendiary liquids. These were, however, almost exclusively useful as a defensive weapon during sieges, when they could be employed to set fire to enemy siege towers and rams.

Greek fire remained a pivotal secret weapon for the Byzantines- so secret that knowledge of its nature is now lost to history, and some believe that even the Byzantines themselves lost the knowledge of how to make it in the later centuries of their empire. It is speculated that the substance's properties may be due to the incorporation of quicklime, or of saltpeter as an oxidizer.

Flamethrowers using industrial petroleum products came back into style as a weapon of warfare during the early 20th century, and played a noticeable role as a support weapon in both World Wars, now mainly used to clear enemies out of structures by incinerating the buildings or rendering them uninhabitable.

...

HAJANA

[I got nuthin that isn't generic blather I'd be half-bullhorsehockyting about nomadic desert raider traditions]

...

HUSZAR

The title of 'hussar' originated among the Hungarians in the 15th and 16th centuries CE. They trace back earlier, to prior irregular light cavalry traditions of the Balkans that may in turn have been descended in some form from that of the Magyars, or even the earlier Avar and Hunnic tribes that swept through the region after the fall of Rome. It is debated whether the word originates from medieval words in various languages that mean, respectively, 'bandit,' 'pirate,' or most simplistically, the Hungarian phrase for 'twenty acres,' it being the law in Hungary at the time that any man who owned twenty acres of land must supply a mounted soldier for the king as a feudal due.

Hussars were employed both by the Hungarians themselves, and by other kingdoms as mercenaries. They were highly effective light cavalry, and many of their habits were adopted by the Poles, who themselves became famous for their armored lancers, which were termed 'winged hussars.' But at the same time that the Polish hussars were up-armoring and becoming heavy shock troops, the Hungarian hussars were discarding more and more of their armor, and adopting tactics optimized differently. Focusing on maneuver and on strategically significant non-battlefield roles like scouting and foraging, they evolved into the template for what would become the dominant form of light cavalry used throughout most of Europe during the gunpowder era.

 

[Simon_Jester]

IMAJAGHAN

'Imajaghan' and other related words come from the Arabic for 'free man.' It is the word the Berbers use for themselves, or at least for the non-slave classes of traditional Berber society.

The Berbers have retained an identity as proudly independent peoples largely independent of outside overlords and governments, for thousands of years. The backbone of this identity is their success as pastoral nomads criss-crossing the vast Sahara desert and its surroundings. They have been widely known as great warriors and raiders throughout most of this time.

ISIKHULU

'Isikhulu' comes from a Zulu word for 'officers' or 'princes.'

The Zulu armies, operating along lines first laid out by Shaka, repeatedly came into conflict with Boer settlers and British infantry during the 19th century CE. At the time, Zulu technology was still firmly in the Iron Age, while the Europeans began the century with widespread use of gunpowder weapons, and ended it with industrially made breech-loading rifles, machine guns, and field artillery firing explosive shells.

Against this technological gap, the Zulus ultimately proved unable to survive as an independent nation. However, they proved highly adaptable and resourceful, making the heaviest possible use of what firearms they had available, and did succeed in winning a few significant battles such as the Battle of Isandlhwana (the worst defeat ever experienced by the British Army at the hands of a native force during the colonial era). The intense training and discipline of the Zulu armies allowed them to exploit any weakness in a European army's deployment or defensive preparations, to the utmost of their ability.

Up until the end, the Zulus could come closer than expected to overcoming the gap in firepower imposed on them by European armament, and it may be speculated that without late 19th century technologies such as the machine gun and repeating rifles, they could not have been overcome at all.

 

[Simon_Jester]

JONG

A jong is a type of sailling ship in use from ancient times on Java and in Malaysia. The root word comes from the Chinese 'chuan,' which is the word for ship that became known in English as 'junk.' However, the Malays adapted their ships' design in ways quite different from the design philosophy favored in China.

Taking advantage of tropical hardwoods such as teak, the Malays and Javanese were able to build hulls of exceptionally hard-wearing materials, with no need for fasteners other than wooden dowels- traditionally, no iron nails or fittings were used in the construction of a jong. By contrast, Chinese junks were built of softwoods and relied on iron fasteners to hold together the hull planking, and the load-bearing bulkheads internal to the hull. Teak was particularly valuable for its resistance to marine parasites, allowing a smoother, more resilient hull that would cut through the water with less drag.

Using specially aligned oblique rigs for their sails, the jong design could sail close to the wind, and was praised by Chinese authors as being exceptionally seaworthy and tolerant of rough weather conditions.

Some jongs were built to prodigious size and scale; vessels of up to two thousand tons were reported. They were capable of long-distance voyages. The Portuguese reported a 1420 sighting of a jong that would have had to round the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Atlantic.

As the Portuguese penetrated into the Indian Ocean, they learned that jongs could also be formidable military opponents. One jong presented such an obstacle to five Portuguese ships under the famous admiral Albuquerque that it was able to resist repeated cannonades, ramming attacks, and boarding attempts for a full two days, finally surrendering, only to be known by the Portuguese as "O Bravo," or 'the brave.' With multiple layers of reinforced teak or ironwood planking, jongs could be highly resistant to the low-velocity cannons of the day, and were widely feared naval combatants, to the extent that the Chinese passed laws requiring their ships to anchor well out to sea when visiting Chinese ports.

Ultimately, jong production declined in the 1600s. This was due in part to escalating competition from Europeans who were closing the gap in ship design with galleons and other vessels, and in part to native monarchs suppressing shipbuilding as a way to limit rebellion. However, the reputation of the Malay peoples as shipwrights and navigators is well-deserved.

Overall, the Malay peoples were able to put up a spirited defense against Portuguese naval intrusions during the early 1500s, thanks in large part to their great skill at shipbuilding and their efficient use of excellent local materials.

 

[Simon_Jester]

KACHINA WARRIOR

Kachina are spirits in the religious belief system of the Pueblo tribe of Native Americans. Like spirits in many other cultures, they may represent a wide variety of different creatures, locations, and natural forces. They are anthropomorphized (complete with human-like family relationships), and are generally treated with veneration, that they may be persuaded to intervene for human good. Numerous kachinas are honored with a variety of ceremonies, figurines and statuettes, and other cultural observances.

While the Pueblo have been a relatively peaceful people through the known and recorded history since the Columbian Exchange, there is archaeological evidence of them engaging in intense bouts of warfare in earlier eras. It is known that some of the kachina spirits provide symbolic strength to warriors.

In the southwestern parts of the United States, most of the terrain is barren desert or rocky mountains. Since resources were scarce, settlements were far apart and usually had low margins of survival if they suffered serious casualties. This promoted a style of warfare that relied heavily on ambushes, creative use of the terrain, and the ability to make long route marches



(NOTE TO XYTH:
'Anasazi' is the word for the ancestral proto-Pueblo that is used by the Navajo, who are the Pueblo's enemies. It means 'ancient enemies.' The Pueblo themselves, who are the direct descendant culture of the people now known as 'Anasazi,' prefer that it not be used. Might want to change civilization name to 'Pueblo' in my opinion.)



KELEBOLO

"Kele-bolo" or "war-arm" is a term for a unit of infantry in the armies of the Malian Empire. Like classical and medieval levies in Europe, they tended to be lightly armed, and most suitable for skirmish tactics. However, they were not entirely incapable of fighting in shock infantry combat hand-to-hand. Furthermore, constant campaigning along the Sahel region ensured that they were familiar with fighting in desert conditions and could perform acceptably in those environments.

KHAMPA

The Khampa people a collection of several ethnic groups that form part of the native population of Tibet. They live in the region of Kham, a rugged area divided by many mountain ridges and river valleys, including the headwaters of some of eastern Asia's greatest rivers. At no time prior to the Chinese conquest was Kham ever united under a single ruler, and instead the region was politically divided among roughly two dozen individual kingdoms, with the exact number varying over time.

This fractiousness led to constant internecine warfare and ongoing banditry and skirmishing between the various peoples and rulers of the region.

KYUDOKA

The most prominent Japanese form of martial arts revolving around archery employs very large, asymmetric bamboo bows known as yumi. Masters of Japanese archery (kyudo) are known as 'kyudoka.'

The medieval Japanese, unlike European civilizations of the same era, viewed archery as a key form of martial accomplishment, A great warrior should be a great archer, as well as being proficient with melee weapons and with his bare hands. Horseback archery was particularly respected, but foot archers played a major role in traditional Japanese warfare.

KYUNDAW

[sorry I got nuthin]

 

[Simon_Jester]

MAHARDLEK

As military and economic pressure from colonial powers (chiefly France, but also Britain) increased, the kingdom of Siam (that is, Thailand) responded with military modernizations. The traditional force, revolving around elephant-borne artillery and conventionally armed troops, was modified, retrained, and extensively drilled by both native and European instructors.

While the Siamese were frequently outgunned by European technology, and had little success countering European naval superiority, the strength of their army during the late 19th century played a pivotal role in preventing their kingdom from being outright conquered and absorbed by the British or French, as happened to the neighboring regions of Burma on the one hand, and Cambodia and Vietnam on the other.

MANGUDAI

The Manghud were one of many Mongolian tribes. They played a role in the rise of Ghengis Khan to control over the Mongols, with some fighting for him, and others against him. Unfortunately, their exact historical role in the subsequent Mongol conquests is ambiguous. Sources vary on whether the Manghud tribe and the 'mangudai' cavalry units referenced elsewhere were one and the same group.

More generally, however, it can be said that the Mongols as a whole were extraordinary mounted archers, among the greatest practitioners of this art to ever live. This was not so much because of any exceptional marksmanship, as due to the overall discipline, organization, and tactical sophistication of Mongol forces. The Mongols were of course outstanding riders with large numbers of horses, whose horsemen could range farther and faster than almost any of their opponents.

Moreover, they had a variety of advanced battle tactics for dealing with powerful enemy forces. For instance, the Mongols made heavy use of fake retreats to lure opponents out of position, and when dealing with foot archers (normally a horse archer's greatest enemy, as they are shooting more easily from a more stable platform, typically in greater numbers), the Mongols would attempt sensible but unorthodox tactics such as simply dismounting and fighting on foot.

MESHEDI

The mesedi, or meshedi, were a very small elite personal bodyguard contingent of the Hittite kings. They kept up a constant watch upon the king's person, both in wartime and in peacetime. While the unit was not large enough to be relevant in a grand clash of armies, the tone they set for the Hittites' heavy infantry could not be ignored. The Hittites were the first people in the Middle East to make heavy use of iron weaponry in battle, and had a hard-hitting, versatile combat capability that performed well in the rugged terrain of Anatolia and on the flatter regions of Mesopotamia and the Levant.

 

[Simon_Jester]

NAVY SEAL

The US Navy's "Sea, Air, and Land Teams" colloquially referred to as "SEAL Teams" are the primary special operations force of the United States Navy. Their focus is special operations that originate from, or return to, a watery biome such as an ocean, river, lake, swamp, delta region, or coastline. The SEALs are selected and trained through a very rigorous process, and learn to operate as infantry on land, while also knowing how to use and fight from small boats and helicopters, and to make effective use of diving equipment and parachutes.

The SEAL teams evolved out of some of the numerous special operations units created by the US military during World War II, for mission requirements that blurred the lines of divided responsibility between the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. Special operations doctrine during this time grew in response to an increasing awareness of the need for small forces that could infiltrate hostile territory to scout, sabotage, and otherwise act behind enemy lines. In particular, the SEALs and their ancestor organizations focused on special operations in support of amphibious landings (such as blowing up obstacles and marking places for landing craft to avoid), and sabotage missions where a commando force had to be delivered by boat.

SEAL training emphasizes tri-phibious capability (air, land, sea), and an extreme commitment to achieving the unit's mission at any and all personal cost. They tend to be lionized in American popular culture, due to their involvement in a variety of high-profile special operations missions in various wars fought by the United States around the turn of the millenium.

PADEWAKANG

The padewakang is a traditional boat design used by the peoples of southern Sulawesi. Typically weighing between 20 and 50 tons and having one or two masts, in relatively modern times they were often armed with light early-gunpowder artillery (such as the traditional lantaka cannon). It was swift, agile, and while normally used as a merchant vessel, could be adapted for raiding tactics in warfare.

PHAKAK

(SORRY I GOT NUTHIN)

PHORGODPO

'Phorgodpo' is from a Tibetan word used in a sense roughly equivalent to 'captain,' the commanders of a military force or the elite of an army.

Tibetan warfare necessarily revolved around hill-fighting, as the entire Tibetan plateau consists of relatively rugged, elevated terrain. During the Tang Dynasty, the Tibetans were known for heavily armored elite soldiery, often riding on horseback to spare their strength for battle and then dismounting to fight. This type of tactic is effective at allowing troops to remain mobile in difficult country without unduly wearing themselves out, especially when burdened by armor.

 

[Simon_Jester]

RATHA

'Ratha' is the Indo-Iranian term for a chariot with spoked wheels.

Chariotry was an iconic feature of early Indian mythology and warfare, as illustrated by their prominence in the Vedas and other key documents of Indian culture and religion from this era, and the ongoing symbolic role of chariots as vehicles for heroes and gods in more contemporary Indian culture. Much of what we now think of as Indian civilization is the result of a fusion between chariot-driving people who invaded India from out of the steppes of central Asia, mixing with the populace, technology, and economic structures of the land they encountered below them. Thus, in a profound sense, India as we know it is a product of the chariot.

SARWE

(having trouble finding references that explicitly use the term, or for that matter details on Axumite/Ethiopian land warfare at all)

 

[Simon_Jester]

SHUJAA

'Shujaa' is the Swahili word for 'warrior' or 'hero.'

The presence of the tsetse fly in East Africa made it prohibitively difficult for the peoples of the region to raise horses. Most styles of warfare continued to focus on infantry. While the peoples of the interior were generally pastoral herdsmen superficially not unlike those of Central Asia (a land which produced outstanding nomadic cavalry), they were forced by circumstances to fight on foot. They adopted doctrines of combat that focused on skirmishing, cattle raiding, and individual valor, not dissimilar from those found in other societies of relatively sedentary herdsmen around the globe.

SIEGE ELEPHANT

In India, the use of elephants in warfare seems to have originated between roughly 1000 and 400 BCE, given that the Rigveda (dating back to the former time) references elephants as beasts of burden but not in battle, whereas the Mahabharata describes combat from elephant-back. It is known that Alexander the Great encountered war elephants- the Persians, emulating the Indians, fielded war elephants at Gaugamela in the year 331 BCE, making such an impression on the Greek army under Alexander that he made sacrifices to the god of fear before the battle. However, while a mere fifteen elephants impressed Alexander, and a hundred elephants in the hands of King Porus were enough to endanger his army a year later, the greatest monarchs of India could by this time field forces of *thousands* of the great beasts.

Military use of elephants continued in India up to and into modern times. However, the ability of elephants to physically maul and crush enemy soldiers began to matter less over time, first with advances in archery, and later with the rise of gunpowder. It became relatively feasible to pepper elephants with ranged weaponry and put them out of action before their unstoppable bulk could break the defending soldiers. This resulted in a certain measure of transition as to the roles elephants were put to.

One such role was their ability to transport light field artillery on their back, in a way that even the strongest other draft animals could never do. This allowed the elephant to serve as a sort of pre-modern version of the tank. They could wear armor that made them relatively protected against man-portable weapons from long range, as even bullets lost considerable striking power over long distances in that era. And armed with a cannon- or even sharpshooters firing from a howdah on the elephant's back- the soldiers fighting atop the elephant could have a formidable effect on the enemy.

Ultimately, this practice fell out of favor for the unfortunate and obvious reason that elephants are very large targets. While enemy bullets and arrows could be stopped by armor or even by the elephant's thick hide, no elephant could hope to withstand being shot by an enemy cannon. However, even if the cannon could not be fired from the elephant's back, elephants proved very effective means of transporting artillery into new firing positions and making the heavy guns more mobile than would have been possible in a Western army, where artillery had to be moved about by slower oxen or dramatically weaker horses.

SIEGE RAM

The Assyrians were notorious for their mastery of siege warfare. This, along with their infamous terror tactics and the discipline of their iron-armed and iron-shod infantry, was key to their ability to forge one of the first multi-ethnic empires formed by conquest in human history.

The Assyrians founded the first corps of military engineers in the region's history to support siege operations and army logistics by building bridges, digging tunnels, and actively refining the design of their siege engines. The siege engineers included sappers who would dig or tunnel under enemy walls, collapsing them by undermining their foundations, or build ramps under cover of heavy mobile shields so that soldiers could simply walk up the ramps and onto the top of the walls. Portable ladders were used both for scaling walls and, perhaps more significantly, for crossing ditches and moats- a prelude to modern mobile bridging equipment.

But the strangest and most remarkable, virtually unprecedented, weapons in the Assyrian arsenal were their siege rams. These were the prototypes of other more modern siege towers. They could be pushed on wheels, and integrated battering rams at their base, along with turrets from which the expert Assyrian archers could fire at the higher levels. Archers in the turrets, along with other archer units further back in line and further from an enemy fortress, would lay down covering fire and prevent enemies within the walls from seriously interfering with the siege tower's operation. It would then roll up, pushed by the soldiers who were under cover from any enemies bold enough to attack with missiles despite the fire of the Assyrian archers, and begin pounding or undermining the wall with the ram or sapping equipment at the base. Alternatively, a direct assault from the turret might be possible under the right circumstances, putting Assyrian soldiers atop the wall in relative safety.

These Assyrian engines, combining the power of a battering ram and what would later be seen as a traditional siege tower, were often combined with the ramp-building of the engineers, allowing the Assyrians to strike a particularly high wall with battering rams at the middle or even top, rather than the heavily built foundations. This proved highly effective, and the Assyrians reduced city after city throughout the region, with relative ease.

Perhaps no single factor played a greater role in the rise of the Assyrian Empire than their extraordinary skill at siegecraft.

 

[Simon_Jester]

SILAT

Silat is a category of traditional Southeast Asian martial arts, native to a region centered around the Malay archipelago. There are a variety of traditional origin stories for the creation of silat, most of which revolve around a woman learning the art by observing animals fighting one another, then using it to defend herself against one or more hostile men. Silat propagated through the region by oral tradition as Iron Age weaponry spread through the region, along with cultural influences from India and China and their own respective martial arts traditions. Silat traditions include meditative techniques, preferred combat stances, and preferred weaponry.

Since silat is itself a diverse collection of different fighting styles, it embraces a prodigious range of different weapons, ranging from bare hands to the traditional wavy-bladed 'kris' dagger, from great broadswords to ropes used as whips.

SIPAHI

The word 'sipahi' in Turkish comes from the Persian word for 'soldier.' It refers to the military elite that formed the regular army units of the Ottoman Turks, as opposed to irregular 'raider' cavalry.

The sipahi were a separate social class with the right to personally collect taxes from the lands around their homes to support their own training and equipment. Some sipahi were expected to arm and equip retainers in feudal style; others were not. However, sipahi were legally unable to inherit, drawing something of a distinction from the typical feudal systems of Europe, and helping to keep more power centralized in the hands of the Ottoman sultan compared to previous societies with a warrior aristocracy.

The term 'sipahi' was almost synonymous with 'cavalry,' due to the Turks' nomadic heritage and the low status assigned to infantry work in most cases. Sipahi might arm and train either as lancers or as horse archers. They remained a major bulwark of Ottoman armies up to and into the 19th century, when modernization programs disbanded the sipahi as a class. Unlike the janissaries before them, the sipahis accepted demobilization gracefully. The oldest sipahi were allowed to retire to their lands, while younger ones simply re-enlisted in the new model army the sultans had created to replace them.

STRZELCY

[Having trouble with this one. Polish mounted crossbowmen, but I'm having trouble with establishing the historicity of such tactics, at least as something special about Poland]

 

[Simon_Jester]

TAY PHAO

'Tay Pháo' is the Vietnamese for 'hand cannon.' The earliest known personal firearms, hand cannon were simply a typical cannon barrel as used in artillery, but downsized to something a human being could carry and fire. Handles, if any, tended to be rather crude, as the weapons were not designed to be readily portable on the march.

In a sense, hand cannon were the first infantry heavy weapons- far more powerful and destructive than a typical bow, sometimes firing multiple projectiles in the same style as the later blunderbuss and shotgun. While they were typically bulky and awkward to use, their firepower proved a devastating game-changer in battle. The later evolution into lighter, more portable arquebuses occurred throughout the world, but the early hand cannons certainly made their mark.

 

[Simon_Jester]

TOA

"Toa" is a Polynesian term for a brave or valiant warrior.

While the Polynesians did not fight using metallic weapons and armor, they were nonetheless valiant and capable warriors even without them. Using hard stone tools and weapons (extremely valuable trade goods throughout the Polynesian sphere of influence), they fought ably, if usually in small numbers. The Maori of New Zealand were particularly famous for their resolute and warlike character on the battlefield, to the point where British troops in the colonial era seldom enjoyed much success against Maori defenders without artillery support.

TOMAHAWK

A 'tomahawk' is a type of relatively light one-handed hatchet or axe. The English loan word 'tomahawk' comes from a term for 'cutting tool' used by the Powhatan Indians of what is now Virginia, but axes of this type were ubiquitous throughout much of North America.

The tomahawk was a popular weapon among the native tribes, especially in close quarters combat for which bows and atlatls were unsuitable. Tomahawks could be balanced for throwing, and were frequently thrown in combat, a practice which lent itself well to the skirmishing tactics popular in the forested terrain of eastern North America.

TRISHULA

The trishula is a ceremonial trident common in Hindu culture and to an extent Buddhist culture. While there is limited evidence of the trishula being used in battle as a practical weapon by mere mortals, it has strong associations as a divine weapon in the hands of the gods. Wielded by Shiva, the primordial god of destruction, and as one of the many weapons of the fierce war-goddess Durga, the trishula is a richly symbolic implement of war in Hindu tradition.

The Kushan Empire originated as a cavalry army of nomadic steppe horsemen, but as they fought their way through Central Asia and what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan, they became more flexible. Heavily armed foot soldiers are depicted as early as roughly 50 CE, but there is no documentary evidence of Kushan infantry from this time. However, the Kushans did clearly integrate mercenary infantry from Persia and phalanxes fighting in the Macedonian style into their ranks, which would have given them a formidable pike arm.

WAKA

The Polynesians were prodigious navigators, among the greatest in human history. Operating out of large dugout canoes considerably smaller (if no less competently designed) than the oceangoing ships of other civilizations, the Polynesians crossed vast stretches of the open Pacific ocean on a regular basis. Not only did they colonize many of the farflung Pacific islands, but they sustained regular trading relationships among these islands, requiring them to reliably be able to set sail in the sure knowledge of finding their destinations.

The waka in particular is a Maori canoe ranging up to forty meters in length, though other Polynesian island cultures constructed vessels of similar capability. Equipped for ramming attacks and sometimes modified with outriggers for greater stability at sea, it is normally used for warfare, including transportation to distant battlefields.

WERERYET

The Egyptians became enthusiastic adopters of the chariot after being conquered by the Hyskos, a diverse collection of invaders who themselves used chariotry heavily. Egyptians began fighting from chariots in great numbers, also making heavy use of another Hyskos innovation, the composite bow. Chariot archery became an Egyptian specialty, and one which they used successfully to greatly expand their influence and territory during several dynasties.

Chariots became the mode of choice for the Egyptian nobility- and the pharaohs- to ride into war, and were frequently depicted in Egyptian art that survived to this day. This included the great battle at Kadesh, possibly the largest chariot battle in history, in which Ramesses II led the Egyptian New Kingdom's forces against the Hittites. Despite major early missteps, the young pharoah was able to rally his forces and rout the Hittite army, although he declined to try and take the city of Kadesh for logistical reasons in the aftermath.

WINGED HUSSAR

The Poles were famed as perhaps the most formidable cavalry in Europe during the early gunpowder era. Between the 1500s and 1700s, their mounted forces were the main line of defense for the kingdom of Poland.

The earliest hussars were modeled after those of Hungary and consisted largely of exiles and mercenaries, but Stephen Bathory reformed them as heavy cavalry in the 1570s. Drawn largely from the ranks of the 'szlachta' or nobility, the hussars formed the elite core of the Polish army. The szlachta were numerous but mostly poor compared to the nobility of other European countries, and thus had more incentive to take the field personally at the head of a small squad of trusted retainers like a traditional medieval knight, rather than raising entire platoons or companies of troops for the king.

The new model hussars replaced earlier medieval-style heavy cavalry, wearing exceptionally heavy armor and wielding pistols, blades, and long lances in combat. They were extremely dangerous in combat and could smash aside all but the most determined and best-equipped enemy forces. Their favored tactic was an overwhelming charge, taking advantage of their aggressive training- and their outstanding, well-bred horses. It was a death-penalty offense to sell horses of the 'tarpan' breed preferred by hussars outside the territory of the Polish-LIthuanian Commonwealth.

Hussars wore moderate armor, light by medieval standards but heavy enough to be protective in hand to hand combat. Each hussar led retainers into combat, generally less impressively and decoratively equipped but still deadly. Their long lances were unusually capable of at least partly countering pike formations, and they routinely carried other melee weapons as well, such as axes or one (or more!) of a wide variety of swords optimized for different purposes. Some even continued to use bows and arrows in medieval style, with the bow being in many ways more accurate and effective than the typical pistols of the 1600s.

The most visually distinctive aspect of the winged hussars was, of course, the wings. These tall constructions were attached to the horse's saddle, and were made of feathers on wooden frames. The reason for these decorations is disputed. Many claim that the wings would rattle and make noise when the hussars' horses were charging, which along with the increase in apparent size would make the hussars exceptionally frightening to the enemy's horses, granting an advantage in battle. Alternatively, the noise of the wings might have served to distract the Poles' horses from other noises on the battlefield, preventing their own horses from becoming frightened. Others speculate that the wings began as a tool for foiling attempts by enemy riders to lasso the hussars or strike at their backs during combat, and became decorated over time for aesthetic reasons.

WIROBROJO

(I'm not sure how to talk these guys up. I'm not questioning your choice, but can you talk a bit to me about why you chose this specific unit for the Javans?)

 

[Simon_Jester]

HEROIC EPIC

Almost every civilization has a founding canon of stories that recount the deeds of legendary ancestral demigods.

These tales, often predating the advent of writing and having their roots in oral history, may recount the origins of the world, of tremendous conflicts that shaped the civilization's past and made it what it is today, or of the process by which great heroes overcame various monsters, menaces, and treacheries in an admirable, inspirational fashion. Being able to rely upon, and to refer to, these tales of (usually mythiologized) glory serves as an inspiration to excellence, both in civilian and in military life.

MILITARY ACADEMY

A military academy is a specialized school that focuses on training youths in the skills necessary to lead soldiers in warfare.

While there are often courses in history or mathematics, the focus of the curriculum is on war, weapons, discipline, leadership, and other skills and traits necessary for a successful military officer. This plays an important role in the rapid creation of capable fighting forces, and ensures that the newly appointed officers of the nation's military have the training and skills they need to best benefit from future combat experience.

MINT

A mint is a facility in which a nation makes physical currency, originally out of precious metals, but now including the printing of paper money.

Mints are usually heavily guarded facilities run by some of the most trusted- and carefully watched- individuals in a national government. The potential for personal enrichment by corrupt officials at the mint is staggering, given that the mint is literally a factory for making money. However, the benefits of having a centralized mint are indisputable and tremendous. Professionalism at the mint can ensure that currency is of reliable, stable value, and minimize the risk of counterfeiting or other tactics that undermine the currency's validity.

NATIONAL FESTIVAL

A festival is a great celebration, usually citywide or nationwide.

Festivals are times of tremendous cheer, during which traditional restrictions and regulations are often waived or ignored. Citizens are normally allowed time to relax and enjoy themselves more than would normally be allowed. The most delicious foods and attractive decorations are displayed, and displays of wealth, athletic prowess, or other traits are common. Typical times at which to hold a festival include the beginning of a calendar year, the founding of the nation, the birthday of a prominent national hero, or sacred days associated with one or more deities.

NATIONAL GALLERY

A gallery is a facility in which numerous artworks are put on display.

National galleries add a great deal of prestige to the nation's art community, and provide a central point for artists to gather. Large and richly galleries containing widely respected masterpieces can add considerable weight to a city's global reputation as a center of culture and refinement.

NATIONAL MONUMENT

A monument is a structure built to commemorate some individual, concept, or historical event.

Large national monuments are some of the greatest memorials we have to the culture of ancient civilizations, frequently surviving long after the civilization has changed beyond recognition. In more contemporary times they serve as rallying points for a society, helping to focus nationalistic mindset and present a more unified front against foreign opposition.

NATIONAL THEATRE

A theater is a center of entertainment, typically including plays and other dramas.

The great cultural centers of a civilization gain exceptional prestige and status, and often have a certain mystique about them that encourages immigration even as the city swells and becomes crowded. Metropoli such as London, New York, and Paris have an almost mythic draw to them, and it may not be a concidence that each of these nations is also renowned as a center of the arts and in particular of the theater...

 

[Simon_Jester]

NAVAL ARSENAL

A naval arsenal is a facility where warships and equipment to be used aboard those warships is mass-produced.

Every great navy throughout history has been backed by the industrial power of dedicated shipbuilding facilities. An advantage in ship production can- and has- turned the tide of many naval wars, turning catastrophic defeats into temporary setbacks, or conferring a crushing numerical advantage on the owner's war fleet before combat even begins. Historically, naval arsenals have pioneered many innovations in manufacturing and assembly, due to the pressing need to build large, strong, advanced ships as quickly as possible.

REFINERY

A refinery is a facility where some chemical substance, typically a petrochemical, is extracted from a mixture that contains other 'impurities.'

Crude oil, straight out of the ground, is largely unsuitable for industrial use. It contains a variety of carbon-bearing organic chemicals whose properties are so diverse that it cannot be used reliably to do any single thing- while each individual chemical in the oil is precious, a chaotic mix of all of them together is less useful. This requires refining. The most common process involved is fractional distillation, in which the oil is carefully boiled away in such a way that each different component chemical condenses back out at a different temperature and in a different physical location, allowing the mixture to be separated. Lighter fractions of the oil such as propane and butane can be used as natural gas. Intermediate-length molecules form the basis for chemical fuels such as gasoline and kerosene. And the heaviest, 'tackiest' fractions that are left behind become raw feedstock for the chemical industry.

Major oil refineries are key nodes in the infrastructure of any industrial nation. They are the consumer of vast amounts of raw oil, shipped to the refinery in fixed pipelines or tanker ships. They in turn export equally vast amounts of petroleum products by land and sea. No nation can derive the full benefits of a petrochemical industry without its own refineries; a lack of refineries means that even many of the world's most prominent oil exporters are forced to rely on *imported* fuel, without the capacity to turn oil into fuel themselves!

ROYAL CEMETERY

A cemetery is a site where the remains of the dead are interred, with memorials erected to mark their absence.

Monarchies tend to be particularly zealous about constructing dignified tombs for royalty. Since the subsequent generations of rulers often regard their predecessors as family members or at least peers, the status of a royal cemetery is generally enshrined legally and well funded. Depending on cultural preferences, the kings and queens and their immediate loved ones may be buried in vast individual tombs (e.g. the Valley of the Kings or the pyramids in Egypt), or in relatively simple and modest vaults within a larger structure (e.g. St. Paul's Cathedral in London). In every case, it represents a cultural and symbolic ritual center for the monarchy and those associated with it.

SEASONAL PALACE

Before the advent of modern climate control (e.g. air conditioning), most cities were only pleasant to reside in during certain seasons of the year. A city that was cool and comfortable in the summer might be bitterly cold and snowy in the winter; conversely a city that remained warm in the winter would likely be stiflingly hot and humid in the summer. As a result, many royal courts chose to establish secondary palaces or capitals in a different place, with the monarch and their court migrating twice each year to alternate between one capital and the other.

While this complicated the logistical challenges of the court itself, it helped to establish and legitimize multiple administrative centers throughout the broader reaches of an empire's territory. This could be both a blessing and a curse.

STOCK EXCHANGE

A stock exchange is an institution where 'stocks,' that is to say small shares of ownership in a corporate undertaking, can be bought, sold, or speculated on.

Stock exchanges have existed for most of the history of the modern corporation. They play a key role in the viability of corporations, because the willingness of others to buy and sell a corporation's stock is tightly linked to its viability- and its prestige. Stock exchanges tend to begin with relatively simple trading in actual shares of ownership, but over time, a vast ecosystem of complex financial products and instruments has emerged, including 'futures' (agreements to buy or sell a commodity at some future date, at a specified price) and other even more speculative arrangements. Today, the financial sector centered around stock exchanges is a growing share of most national economies. This has supercharged many aspects of the corporate world, for better and for worse.

TELEPHONE NETWORK

Telephones, while of relatively little value when connected one-to-one, become extremely useful when the owner of any one telephone has the option of connecting to any of thousands or millions of others. This is known as a 'network.'

The establishment of networked telephones was the early key to the rise of this technology. The population of entire cities could connect more easily than ever before. In the early years, this required the establishment of central "switchboards" operated by individuals who manually connected one telephone's signal wires to the other's. Over time, switching equipment grew more and more efficient, and the equipment of the network grew more and more capable of transmitting a message faithfully over long distances. This allowed networks to include greater and greater numbers of telephone users, until entire nations were connected easily, literally at the push of a button.

Today, it is the custom to largely dispense with a wired network, using advanced radio and microwave telecommunications to create networks of cellular telephones centered around central 'cell phone tower' antennas.

 

[Simon_Jester]

Hm.... let's do some tenets!

FERTILITY

One of the most common things humans call on the blessing of the gods for is fertility- for the productivity of the land and its crops, and for the increase of their own families. Gods of the harvest, of the hunt, of hearth and family and birth, tend to be emphasized by this aspiration.

PROSPERITY

In many lands, the faithful pray avidly for the prosperity of their economic ventures. The hope is that gods or spirits will smile upon the efforts of mortals, rewarding them with good fortune and success in their deeds.

ORDER

Religion can be a potent tool to enforce social and political order. The idea that the power of a god backs the authority of a ruler, or enforces certain relationships within families or between social classes, is compelling and has been found in many world religions. Religions focused on enforcing order often become tools of the state, exhorting the people to diligence in the service of both the faith and their secular overlords.

PRESERVATION

The fear of death and decay is one of the oldest fears of humanity. Humans often turn to religion to reassure them that death can be prevented or bypassed. In some cases, this expresses itself through mysticism and the ambition to cultivate long life through enlightenment or secret practices. In others, it may result in a custom of preserving the bodies of the dead, so that they do not rot away into nothing and may be preserved in some form, in the hope that they yet live in some other world.

SALVATION

It is widespread and common among religious believers to think that there is an essential, intangible soul that provides the animating force driving human beings. The soul, not being made out of matter, is presumed to be immune to sickness, injury, death, and decay. Consequently, many religions teach that the soul outlives the body. This makes the state of a person's soul an even greater concern than their physical welfare- after all, the body will live a little while and then die, but the fate of the soul is forever. Salvation-focused religions provide concrete paths the faithful can follow to ensure a good afterlife for themselves. This can provide greater patience for unpleasant earthly conditions thanks to the promise of eternal reward; it can also lead the faithful to fight more fiercely in battle.

ENLIGHTENMENT

Enlightenment, an abstract state of philosophical awareness and understanding of reality, is an elusive goal of many religious movements throughout history, with tenets as diverse as those of the Sufis, the Buddhists, and the "New Age" movement in the modern developed world. To prioritize enlightenment over other concerns is to promote a detached, yet generally benevolent, attitude towards earthly affairs, cultivating personal mental and moral virtue at the expense of wealth and power.

 

[Simon_Jester]

HEDONISM

Hedonism is the belief that what is best in life is to simply satisfy oneself. To live a life that is large and vivid, full of memory and great deeds, enjoying oneself to the fullest and avoiding that which is loathsome. This is an attitude that lends itself to a certain grandeur in the culture and doings of a civilization's populace... and a certain piratical ferocity when they go to war.

PURITY

Religions focused on purity believe that what is best in life is to be free of contamination- both spiritual and physical. Dirt and other, more distasteful substances are to be shunned. Contact with persons, animals, plants, substances, or places that are ritually "impure" is to be avoided. This can be a costly and difficult process, especially for those classes within society that are most obliged to observe ritual purity restrictions. But strict observation of codes of hygiene has its advantages, sometimes translating into improved health for the people, both in peacetime and in wartime.

ALTRUISM

Altruism is a selfless concern for the well-being of others, and a core virtue of many religions. To idealize altruism is to uphold the idea that the the priority of society is to minimize the suffering of the least and weakest among them. This can express itself through charity, through laws that impose restraints on the elite and uphold the rights of the masses, or through all manner of other practices.

HONOUR

Honor is an intangible quality, seen as virtuous, that adheres to individuals who have proved themselves to be outstanding in ways valued by society. Historically, this has generally revolved around fighting prowess. In a society where martial honor is prized, individuals will strive and push themselves to the forward with the utmost vigor during wartime, in hopes of attaining status and distinction. There will generally be great numbers of individuals ready to leap up and seize weapons to fight for a cause, be that cause righteous or otherwise.

DUTY

Duty is the concept that a person has obligations which cannot be broken and must be upheld at any cost, even if they are distasteful. Religions that emphasize duty are efficient at keeping the populace vigorously at work, pressing the people to remember their obligations, repay their debts, and labor hardily at their tasks.

JUDGEMENT

Religions centered on judgment hold that any and every person's actions will, in the final analysis, be held for or against them. Even if they escape consequences for wrong actions, or are not rewarded for righteous actions, in this life, they will assuredly get their just desserts in death. This promotes a certain uncompromising attitude towards moral values, and can draw a society together, albeit in a stern and sometimes even cruel and coercive manner.

 

[Simon_Jester]

SUPERSTITION

Superstition is a derogatory term for beliefs about magic, spirits, or other supernatural forces and how they interact with human life.

Every known society, including Stone Age hunter-gatherers, harbors some forms of belief about the supernatural. Many of these beliefs seem strange or even laughable to outsiders. This can include the precise manner in which society thinks about and deals with the dead, fear or aversion to certain animals, plants, or symbols, an insistence on performing certain rituals while engaged in certain activities, a belief in the widespread practice of evil magic by enemies, and other things. While dismissing such customs as 'superstition' is often hypocritical on the part of outsiders, it is a common habit among humans who travel to other cultures, especially if they believe themselves to be superior in technological or cultural matters.

OCCULTISM

Occultism is a set of belief or practices revolving around the idea that knowledge of the supernatural is inherently mysterious, sacred, and to be hoarded by specific practitioners.

This typically results in religions organized around sages famous for their enlightenment and knowledge, but who pass this knowledge on only to chosen proteges. Secret ceremonies and symbols proliferate, as people seek initiation into various 'mystery cults' or seek the advice and guidance of those with reputations as sages and magicians. Those who seek to learn the sacred mysteries are often punished very harshly, even by mutilation or death. Opportunities for unscrupulous figures to profit from the religion are numerous, but at the same time, cultures that focus on sacred mysteries tend to be relatively tolerant and flexible with regards to other religions, in that they implicitly hold religion to be a private matter on important levels.

SCRIPTURE

Scripture is a common term for written documents that contain the fundamental legends, laws, and theological doctrines of a religion.

A focus on scripture tends to give rise to a legalistic religion, with a large class of scholars whose job is to interpret the holy books and expound on their consequences to the masses. In cases such as Islam, these scholars often double as lawyers and judges; in other cases such as Christianity, the role is somewhat more indirect and the religious scholars share more power with secular institutions. By nature, scripture-based religions tend to be somewhat more centralized, if not in terms of having hierarchy, in terms of having a fixed canon of beliefs that stays relatively uniform across time and distance.

DISCIPLINE

Discipline is the set of practices, beliefs, and attitudes that enables a person or group to adhere to rules and plans in the face of adverse circumstances.

In the context of religion, discipline can take the form of meditation, physical exercises, or self-deprivation. This is generally done to focus the mind and spirit on the ideals and tenets of the faith. Such customs, cultivated by society at large, tend to promote martial vigor and resilience in the face of physical and mental hardship.

PILGRIMAGE

Pilgrimage is the act of traveling from one place to another for religious motives, to seek enlightenment or learning in a distant place.

Most religions have central holy sites, and often a wide array of special locations where sacred relics are kept, or where holy individuals have lived. Traveling to these sites commemorates the ideals and values embodied within the faith. In a few cases, such as the religion of Islam, the pilgrimage is itself a core tenet of the faith. A long pilgrimage expresses commitment and focuses the mind on the religion's values. It also promotes the infrastructure of long-distance trade, commerce, and cultural exchange.